Participants in World War II involves all nations who either participated directly or were affected by any of the theaters or events of World War II.
World War II was primarily fought between two large alliances. The Axis Powers were a group of countries led by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and the Empire of Japan, and are considered the aggressors of the conflict. The Allies, led by the United Kingdom and, until its defeat France, were joined in the European theatre by the Soviet Union in June 1941 and by the United States in December 1941. In the Asia-Pacific theater, the Allies were led by the Republic of China from the invasion of China by Japan in 1937 and then joined by the United States in 1941 after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Axis Powers
The original Allied countries, bound by their commitment to the security of Poland, were led by the United Kingdom and France. The fall of France left the United Kingdom as the sole remaining major country of the Allies. Most of the remainder consisted of the British Commonwealth and forces commanded by various governments-in-exile.
While the European war did not officially start until the 1939 invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union, the war began much earlier in Asia and Africa with the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1936 and the Japanese invasion of China in 1937. Subsequently, with the war spreading to Europe and the Pacific Ocean, China, with one-third of the country under occupation, dispatched its forces to help the British defend India against Japan and recapture Burma (now Myanmar) in 1944.
In 1941, with Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union, the British accepted the Communist Soviet Union into their alliance. Previous to the attack, the United Kingdom was unsure of how to deal with the Soviet leadership, since it had been an aggressor against Britain's ally Poland since 1939. The British prime minister, Winston Churchill in 1939 said that the new Soviet-German border formed an anti-Nazi front, which Hitler could never break. This passage many consider as an attempt to provoke Hitler against the USSR. However, once Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, it mounted the major Allied effort to eliminate the main forces of German Wehrmacht.
Following the Japanese Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, the United States formally entered the war, committing itself to assisting the Allies in both theaters of war. The United States had been a major lend-lease contributor of resources and production for the war effort prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, shipping material to most of the Allies to assist their forces, but after the Japanese attack, the United States began contributing its own forces to combat.
A much larger number of countries joined the Allies during the war than joined the Axis. Not only did the countries attacked by the Axis join, but later in the war, many smaller countries not directly involved in the war joined the Allies to ensure their own security as well as to gain the support of the Allies economically and militarily during and after the war.
Allies
Each country involved in or affected by World War II is listed with a brief description of its role in the conflict.
Countries are listed alphabetically.
National impacts
Afghanistan's King Mohammed Zahir Shah successfully kept his isolated kingdom out of the war. The Afghan government had German sympathies, but it chose to retain its neutrality because of Afghanistan's position between the Soviet Union and British India. Oil prices went up and increased trade with Afghanistan, making it richer throughout the war.
Afghanistan
Main article: Military history of Albania during World War II Albania
Andorra remained officially neutral for the duration of World War II. At the beginning of the war, a small detachment of French troops was stationed in the country which was left over from the Spanish Civil War, but these forces were withdrawn in 1940. When France fell, Philippe Pétain of the Vichy regime was declared the new French Co-prince. After the German invasion of Vichy France in 1942, a German military force moved to the Andorran border near Pas de la Casa but did not cross. In response, a Spanish force was established at La Seu d'Urgell, but it too remained outside Andorran territory. In 1944, Charles de Gaulle established a new provisional government, and assumed the position of French Co-Prince. He ordered French forces to occupy Andorra as a "preventative measure" to secure order. Throughout the war, Andorra was used as a smuggling route between Spain and Vichy France, and an escape route for people fleeing German-occupied areas.
Andorra
During the period of World War II, Argentina was ruled by a series of fraudulent conservative governments and dictatorial military juntas. The Argentine army and population (comprising large groups of Italian and Spanish immigrants) was at the time divided between pro-allied and pro-axis sentiments. While a large majority of the Argentine economic elite was considerably anglophilic and wanted Argentina to join the Allied side, neutralist and even pro-Axis feelings prevailed in the military, which saw the war as a potential source of economic benefit for the country, by exporting supplies and agricultural products to both sides of the conflict. Eventually, the militaristic government of Gral. Edelmiro T. Farrell caved in to international pressure, and Argentina joined other Latin American countries and declared war on Germany and Japan late in the conflict (March 27, 1945).
Many citizens opposed the nation's official neutralist stance. As many as 800 Argentine volunteers fought in the British, South African and Canadian Air Forces, mainly in the 164 Argentine-British RAF squadron, which saw action in Northern France and Belgium.
Argentina
During World War II, Armenia was part of the Soviet Union as Armenian SSR. Over five hundred thousand Armenians fought for the Soviet army, and half of them fell in battles. Five Armenian infantry divisions were formed. Armenia gave 4 marshals and 60 generals. The Armenian Church and overseas Armenian donated large sums of money. After the war, the Armenian and Georgian Republics laid territorial claims to Turkey. However, the Soviet government was not willing to return the Armenian lands and shortly thereafter stated to have no claims to Turkey.
Some captured Armenians chose to fight for the Axis. They fought in the following units:
Armenische Legion (Armenian volunteers)
30.Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS (russische Nr. 2) (Armenians, Tatars Volunteers units)
Freiwilligen-Stamm-Regiment 2 (Armenians & Azerbaijanis)
SS-Waffengruppe Armenien (Armenian volunteers) Armenia
Andorra remained officially neutral for the duration of World War II. At the beginning of the war, a small detachment of French troops was stationed in the country which was left over from the Spanish Civil War, but these forces were withdrawn in 1940. When France fell, Philippe Pétain of the Vichy regime was declared the new French Co-prince. After the German invasion of Vichy France in 1942, a German military force moved to the Andorran border near Pas de la Casa but did not cross. In response, a Spanish force was established at La Seu d'Urgell, but it too remained outside Andorran territory. In 1944, Charles de Gaulle established a new provisional government, and assumed the position of French Co-Prince. He ordered French forces to occupy Andorra as a "preventative measure" to secure order. Throughout the war, Andorra was used as a smuggling route between Spain and Vichy France, and an escape route for people fleeing German-occupied areas.
Andorra
During the period of World War II, Argentina was ruled by a series of fraudulent conservative governments and dictatorial military juntas. The Argentine army and population (comprising large groups of Italian and Spanish immigrants) was at the time divided between pro-allied and pro-axis sentiments. While a large majority of the Argentine economic elite was considerably anglophilic and wanted Argentina to join the Allied side, neutralist and even pro-Axis feelings prevailed in the military, which saw the war as a potential source of economic benefit for the country, by exporting supplies and agricultural products to both sides of the conflict. Eventually, the militaristic government of Gral. Edelmiro T. Farrell caved in to international pressure, and Argentina joined other Latin American countries and declared war on Germany and Japan late in the conflict (March 27, 1945).
Many citizens opposed the nation's official neutralist stance. As many as 800 Argentine volunteers fought in the British, South African and Canadian Air Forces, mainly in the 164 Argentine-British RAF squadron, which saw action in Northern France and Belgium.
Argentina
During World War II, Armenia was part of the Soviet Union as Armenian SSR. Over five hundred thousand Armenians fought for the Soviet army, and half of them fell in battles. Five Armenian infantry divisions were formed. Armenia gave 4 marshals and 60 generals. The Armenian Church and overseas Armenian donated large sums of money. After the war, the Armenian and Georgian Republics laid territorial claims to Turkey. However, the Soviet government was not willing to return the Armenian lands and shortly thereafter stated to have no claims to Turkey.
Some captured Armenians chose to fight for the Axis. They fought in the following units:
Armenische Legion (Armenian volunteers)
30.Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS (russische Nr. 2) (Armenians, Tatars Volunteers units)
Freiwilligen-Stamm-Regiment 2 (Armenians & Azerbaijanis)
SS-Waffengruppe Armenien (Armenian volunteers) Armenia
Main article: Military history of Australia during World War II Australia
Austria became part of Germany in 1938 amongst popular acclaim during the Anschluss. After the defeat of the Axis Powers, the Allies occupied Austria at the end of World War II in Europe until 1955, when the country again became a fully independent republic under the condition that it remained neutral.
Austria
The Sheikh of Bahrain declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939. Bahraini forces fought under British command in the Middle East theater.
Bahrain
Like the Netherlands, Belgium declared its neutrality in an effort to avoid being caught in another war between Germany and France. Nazi Germany, however, did not respect Belgium's neutrality and marched through Belgium as part of the invasion of France in 1940. Thus, Belgium joined the Allies and maintained a government-in-exile with control over its colonial possessions until the country was liberated in 1944.
Belgium
Bolivia was one of many Latin American countries to declare war on Germany late in the war, joining the Allies on December 4, 1943. Shortly after war was declared, the President of Bolivia, Enrique Peñaranda, was overthrown in a coup. The new ruler, Gualberto Villarroel, had fascist and anti-Semitic leanings, but foreign pressure compelled Villarroel to remain at war and to purge the more extreme Nazi sympathizers from among his supporters. Bolivia was a supplier of vital war material, tin, to Allied militaries.
Bolivia
Brazil was under the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas and maintained its neutrality until the beginning of 1942. After the German attack against Brazilian ships in the Atlantic Ocean and in Pearl Harbor, Brazil sided with the Allies, declaring war against Germany and Italy in 1942. Brazil helped to patrol the South Atlantic, opened their ports for Allied naval forces and sent the 25,000 strong Brazilian Expeditionary Force to fight in Europe in 1944, being the only Latin American nation to send troops to Europe. This army joined the U.S. Fifth Army under General Mark Wayne Clark and participated in the Italian campaign until the end of war. Brazil sent the 1st Fighter Group to fight in Italy with P-47's.
Brazil
Austria became part of Germany in 1938 amongst popular acclaim during the Anschluss. After the defeat of the Axis Powers, the Allies occupied Austria at the end of World War II in Europe until 1955, when the country again became a fully independent republic under the condition that it remained neutral.
Austria
The Sheikh of Bahrain declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939. Bahraini forces fought under British command in the Middle East theater.
Bahrain
Like the Netherlands, Belgium declared its neutrality in an effort to avoid being caught in another war between Germany and France. Nazi Germany, however, did not respect Belgium's neutrality and marched through Belgium as part of the invasion of France in 1940. Thus, Belgium joined the Allies and maintained a government-in-exile with control over its colonial possessions until the country was liberated in 1944.
Belgium
Bolivia was one of many Latin American countries to declare war on Germany late in the war, joining the Allies on December 4, 1943. Shortly after war was declared, the President of Bolivia, Enrique Peñaranda, was overthrown in a coup. The new ruler, Gualberto Villarroel, had fascist and anti-Semitic leanings, but foreign pressure compelled Villarroel to remain at war and to purge the more extreme Nazi sympathizers from among his supporters. Bolivia was a supplier of vital war material, tin, to Allied militaries.
Bolivia
Brazil was under the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas and maintained its neutrality until the beginning of 1942. After the German attack against Brazilian ships in the Atlantic Ocean and in Pearl Harbor, Brazil sided with the Allies, declaring war against Germany and Italy in 1942. Brazil helped to patrol the South Atlantic, opened their ports for Allied naval forces and sent the 25,000 strong Brazilian Expeditionary Force to fight in Europe in 1944, being the only Latin American nation to send troops to Europe. This army joined the U.S. Fifth Army under General Mark Wayne Clark and participated in the Italian campaign until the end of war. Brazil sent the 1st Fighter Group to fight in Italy with P-47's.
Brazil
Main article: Military history of Bulgaria during World War II Bulgaria
Main article: Military history of Canada during World War II Canada
Main article: Participation of Ceylon in World War II Ceylon
Initially, Chile chose to remain neutral in the war, having close trading links with Germany. Later in the war, however, Chile distanced itself from the Axis powers, and the Chilean government took steps to dismiss pro-German military officers. Relations with Axis countries were broken in 1943, and in 1945, Chile declared war on Japan.
Chile
Initially, Chile chose to remain neutral in the war, having close trading links with Germany. Later in the war, however, Chile distanced itself from the Axis powers, and the Chilean government took steps to dismiss pro-German military officers. Relations with Axis countries were broken in 1943, and in 1945, Chile declared war on Japan.
Chile
Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War China
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Colombia broke diplomatic relations with the Axis powers. Colombia provided the Allies with petroleum products. Then, in 1943, the German submarine U 505 destroyed a Colombian schooner, which caused Colombia to declare a "status of belligerency" against Germany on November 26. The German ambassador left the country, and measures of control were implemented, including internment of German citizens in designated areas. Photographs and reconnaissance airplanes belonging to the Colombian-German company Scadta, who used to take aerial shots of Colombian and German cities were also handed to the United States. During the recovery years, Colombia sent Nestle products (coffee, baby food, etc.) and carbon for heating all over Europe.
Colombia
Costa Rica joined the Allies on December 8, 1941. The leftist administration of President Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia was hostile to Nazism and introduced numerous measures to decrease German influence in the country. Costa Rica declared war on Japan the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and on Germany and Italy shortly afterwards. It allowed the United States to establish an airfield on Cocos Island.
Costa Rica
Cuba joined the Allies on December 8, 1941, when it declared war on Japan. On December 11, it also declared war on Germany and Italy. The United States naval station at Guantanamo Bay served as an important base for protecting Allied shipping in the Caribbean, and on May 15, 1943, a Cuban warship sank a German submarine in waters near Havana. Cuba began to plan a conscription program in order to contribute troops, but this had not materialized by the end of the war.
Cuba
Czechoslovakia was dismembered by Nazi Germany, starting with Neville Chamberlain's Munich Agreement with Hitler in 1938 and the German–Italian Vienna Awards. The Czech part (western) of the country became the so-called Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under so-called State-President Emil Hácha, the newly separated Slovak Republic, a Nazi-dependent puppet regime, led by Roman Catholic priest Jozef Tiso was ultimately inserted in Slovakia. Part of southern Slovakia as well as the complete Ruthenia (the former most eastern part of Czechoslovakia) was annexed by Hungary. Zaolzie was annexed by Poland, only to be snatched from them by the Germans 11 months later. In 1945 the victorious Soviet Union returned Zaolzie to Czechoslovakia. From 1940, a government-in-exile in London under former Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš was recognized as an Allied power. The Slovak National Uprising, commenced in August 1944, was suppressed by German forces at the end of October, however partisans continued fighting in the mountains till the end of the war. In April 1945, the Red Army defeated the Germans and ousted Tiso's government, annexing Carpathia Ruthenia to the USSR.
Czechoslovakia
Denmark remained neutral from the outbreak of the war. It was invaded and occupied by Germany on April 9, 1940, as part of Operation Weserübung, surrendering after a few hours of fighting and never declaring war on the Germans. The Danish government remained in office in Copenhagen until 1943 and signed the Anti-Comintern Pact. On August 29, 1943, the government handed in its resignation to the King as a response to German demands for more concessions. Each Permanent Secretary took control of his own ministry. On May 10, 1940, the British occupied Iceland. Shortly before they had occupied the Faroe Islands. The United States occupied Greenland, a position later supported by the Danish envoy in Washington, Henrik Kauffmann. Iceland, which was later not transferred from British to American control, declared its independence in 1944. On May 4, 1945, the German forces in Denmark surrendered to the British army. Since the German commander on Bornholm refused to surrender to the Soviet Union, two local towns were bombed and the garrison forced to surrender. Bornholm remained under Soviet control until 1946.
Denmark
The Dominican Republic declared war on Germany and Japan following the attacks of Pearl Harbor and the Nazi declaration of war on the U.S. However, it did not contribute with either troops, aircraft or ships.
Dominican Republic
Ecuador was another of the South American nations to join the Allies late in the war (joined against Germany on February 2, 1945). Ecuador let the U.S. use Baltra Island for a naval base). [1], [2]
Ecuador
Egypt had become fully independent in 1936, but British troops remained to protect the Suez Canal, and a treaty provision allowed British troops to use the country as a military base in time of war. Egypt was seen by both the Axis and the Allies as a vital strategic point, because of access to the Suez Canal. The Egyptian government remained officially neutral during the war, but King Farouk allowed British troops to use Egypt as a base of operations and placed his Navy at the disposal of the British. Initially Egypt was targeted by Italy, but after a heavy defeat by the British forces under the command of General Wavell, the Germans were compelled to enter the fray with a division under the command of General Erwin Rommel.
Rommel's successes in the deserts of Libya and west Egypt, and the fact that they came to within 160 kilometres (100 mi) of Cairo, gave the Allied forces (in particular the British) a major fright. The revolutionary officers that eventually came to power in 1952 (led by Colonel Abdel Nasser) plotted to support the Germans in their push for Cairo, seeing a German victory as an opportunity to liberate Egypt from the British colonial occupation.
Egypt
From 1931 to 1944, El Salvador was ruled by Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez, an admirer of Hitler and Mussolini. Nonetheless, the dictator declared war on both Japan (December 8, 1941) and Germany (December 12, 1941) shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor, for economic reasons. El Salvador's economy depended heavily on the United States. Martinez removed Germans from the government and interned Japanese, German, and Italian nationals. The Second World War made Salvadoreans leery of their dictatorship, and a general national strike in 1944 forced Martinez to resign and flee to Guatemala. [3]
El Salvador
The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union left Estonia in the Soviet sphere of interest. The Soviet Union threatened Estonia with war if Estonia did not agree with the mutual assistance pact, which required allowing the Soviet Union to build military bases into Estonia. Estonian government, convinced that winning a war against the Soviet Union was impossible, agreed on September 28, 1939.
The Soviets conducted a coup with support of the Red Army in June 1940, and an election was held with great Soviet political influence. The new government took command and the Estonian Socialist Republic (ESR) was proclaimed on July 2, 1940. The ESR was formally accepted into the Soviet Union on August 6, and the official name of the country became the "Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic". Estonia was occupied by Germany in 1941 after war broke out between Germany and the Soviet Union. Soviet control over Estonia was restored in 1944. Estonia remained a part of the USSR until 1991.
Estonia
At the outbreak of the war, Emperor Haile Selassie was in exile in England trying in vain to obtain Allied support for his nation's cause. The Ethiopian Patriots Movement had begun its guerilla war against the occupying Italian forces the day Addis Ababa fell in May 1936.
Upon the emperor's flight into exile, remnants of Ethiopia's disbanded imperial army had transformed into guerilla units. Urban city residents throughout the country formed underground movements to aid the Patriots as the overall population led a passive resistance campaign aimed at stifling Mussolini's economic agenda for the region. As a result, the Italians were never able to successfully occupy and secure the entire country including the emperor's relocated capital at Gore in the southwest. Throughout the occupation and into the beginning of the Second World War, the constant harassment of Italian columns and communication and supply lines reduced their fighting capabilities and their morale. A state of paranoia among Italian troops and civilians alike had sunk in as they became increasingly isolated from Rome. Fascist retaliation to Patriot attacks were brutal and often targeted the civilian population, which only further filled the ranks of the Patriots creating a cycle that lead to the eventual demise of Mussolini's Italian East Africa.
Britain's declaration of war against Italy reinvigorated the Patriot movement and paved the way for the final ousting of the Italians in Ethiopia and in the Horn of Africa. The Allied liberation campaign of Ethiopia began in the winter of 1940. Emperor Haile Selassie, with the support and cooperation of the British, was transported to the Sudan to work alongside Major Orde Wingate to organize and lead the main Ethiopian Patriot divisions that had fled fascist-controlled Ethiopia upon news of Britain's declaration of war.
The East African Campaign was conducted by a largely multi-African force and consisted of Ethiopian, Eritrean, British, Sudanese, Kenyan, Rhodesian, South African, Indian, Nigerian, Ghanaian and Free French units. Within months, the liberation of Ethiopia was achieved, and on May 5, 1941, five years to the day that the Emperor fled his capital, Haile Selassie was restored to his throne. The defeat of fascists in Ethiopia marked the first victory for the Allies in the Second World War and allowed for the remaining forces to be quickly moved up to Egypt to confront the Axis advance towards Cairo.
Ethiopia
Fiji was a British colony during World War II. The Fiji Defence Force served with New Zealand Army formations, under the Allied Pacific Ocean Areas command.
Fiji
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Colombia broke diplomatic relations with the Axis powers. Colombia provided the Allies with petroleum products. Then, in 1943, the German submarine U 505 destroyed a Colombian schooner, which caused Colombia to declare a "status of belligerency" against Germany on November 26. The German ambassador left the country, and measures of control were implemented, including internment of German citizens in designated areas. Photographs and reconnaissance airplanes belonging to the Colombian-German company Scadta, who used to take aerial shots of Colombian and German cities were also handed to the United States. During the recovery years, Colombia sent Nestle products (coffee, baby food, etc.) and carbon for heating all over Europe.
Colombia
Costa Rica joined the Allies on December 8, 1941. The leftist administration of President Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia was hostile to Nazism and introduced numerous measures to decrease German influence in the country. Costa Rica declared war on Japan the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and on Germany and Italy shortly afterwards. It allowed the United States to establish an airfield on Cocos Island.
Costa Rica
Cuba joined the Allies on December 8, 1941, when it declared war on Japan. On December 11, it also declared war on Germany and Italy. The United States naval station at Guantanamo Bay served as an important base for protecting Allied shipping in the Caribbean, and on May 15, 1943, a Cuban warship sank a German submarine in waters near Havana. Cuba began to plan a conscription program in order to contribute troops, but this had not materialized by the end of the war.
Cuba
Czechoslovakia was dismembered by Nazi Germany, starting with Neville Chamberlain's Munich Agreement with Hitler in 1938 and the German–Italian Vienna Awards. The Czech part (western) of the country became the so-called Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under so-called State-President Emil Hácha, the newly separated Slovak Republic, a Nazi-dependent puppet regime, led by Roman Catholic priest Jozef Tiso was ultimately inserted in Slovakia. Part of southern Slovakia as well as the complete Ruthenia (the former most eastern part of Czechoslovakia) was annexed by Hungary. Zaolzie was annexed by Poland, only to be snatched from them by the Germans 11 months later. In 1945 the victorious Soviet Union returned Zaolzie to Czechoslovakia. From 1940, a government-in-exile in London under former Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš was recognized as an Allied power. The Slovak National Uprising, commenced in August 1944, was suppressed by German forces at the end of October, however partisans continued fighting in the mountains till the end of the war. In April 1945, the Red Army defeated the Germans and ousted Tiso's government, annexing Carpathia Ruthenia to the USSR.
Czechoslovakia
Denmark remained neutral from the outbreak of the war. It was invaded and occupied by Germany on April 9, 1940, as part of Operation Weserübung, surrendering after a few hours of fighting and never declaring war on the Germans. The Danish government remained in office in Copenhagen until 1943 and signed the Anti-Comintern Pact. On August 29, 1943, the government handed in its resignation to the King as a response to German demands for more concessions. Each Permanent Secretary took control of his own ministry. On May 10, 1940, the British occupied Iceland. Shortly before they had occupied the Faroe Islands. The United States occupied Greenland, a position later supported by the Danish envoy in Washington, Henrik Kauffmann. Iceland, which was later not transferred from British to American control, declared its independence in 1944. On May 4, 1945, the German forces in Denmark surrendered to the British army. Since the German commander on Bornholm refused to surrender to the Soviet Union, two local towns were bombed and the garrison forced to surrender. Bornholm remained under Soviet control until 1946.
Denmark
The Dominican Republic declared war on Germany and Japan following the attacks of Pearl Harbor and the Nazi declaration of war on the U.S. However, it did not contribute with either troops, aircraft or ships.
Dominican Republic
Ecuador was another of the South American nations to join the Allies late in the war (joined against Germany on February 2, 1945). Ecuador let the U.S. use Baltra Island for a naval base). [1], [2]
Ecuador
Egypt had become fully independent in 1936, but British troops remained to protect the Suez Canal, and a treaty provision allowed British troops to use the country as a military base in time of war. Egypt was seen by both the Axis and the Allies as a vital strategic point, because of access to the Suez Canal. The Egyptian government remained officially neutral during the war, but King Farouk allowed British troops to use Egypt as a base of operations and placed his Navy at the disposal of the British. Initially Egypt was targeted by Italy, but after a heavy defeat by the British forces under the command of General Wavell, the Germans were compelled to enter the fray with a division under the command of General Erwin Rommel.
Rommel's successes in the deserts of Libya and west Egypt, and the fact that they came to within 160 kilometres (100 mi) of Cairo, gave the Allied forces (in particular the British) a major fright. The revolutionary officers that eventually came to power in 1952 (led by Colonel Abdel Nasser) plotted to support the Germans in their push for Cairo, seeing a German victory as an opportunity to liberate Egypt from the British colonial occupation.
Egypt
From 1931 to 1944, El Salvador was ruled by Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez, an admirer of Hitler and Mussolini. Nonetheless, the dictator declared war on both Japan (December 8, 1941) and Germany (December 12, 1941) shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor, for economic reasons. El Salvador's economy depended heavily on the United States. Martinez removed Germans from the government and interned Japanese, German, and Italian nationals. The Second World War made Salvadoreans leery of their dictatorship, and a general national strike in 1944 forced Martinez to resign and flee to Guatemala. [3]
El Salvador
The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union left Estonia in the Soviet sphere of interest. The Soviet Union threatened Estonia with war if Estonia did not agree with the mutual assistance pact, which required allowing the Soviet Union to build military bases into Estonia. Estonian government, convinced that winning a war against the Soviet Union was impossible, agreed on September 28, 1939.
The Soviets conducted a coup with support of the Red Army in June 1940, and an election was held with great Soviet political influence. The new government took command and the Estonian Socialist Republic (ESR) was proclaimed on July 2, 1940. The ESR was formally accepted into the Soviet Union on August 6, and the official name of the country became the "Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic". Estonia was occupied by Germany in 1941 after war broke out between Germany and the Soviet Union. Soviet control over Estonia was restored in 1944. Estonia remained a part of the USSR until 1991.
Estonia
At the outbreak of the war, Emperor Haile Selassie was in exile in England trying in vain to obtain Allied support for his nation's cause. The Ethiopian Patriots Movement had begun its guerilla war against the occupying Italian forces the day Addis Ababa fell in May 1936.
Upon the emperor's flight into exile, remnants of Ethiopia's disbanded imperial army had transformed into guerilla units. Urban city residents throughout the country formed underground movements to aid the Patriots as the overall population led a passive resistance campaign aimed at stifling Mussolini's economic agenda for the region. As a result, the Italians were never able to successfully occupy and secure the entire country including the emperor's relocated capital at Gore in the southwest. Throughout the occupation and into the beginning of the Second World War, the constant harassment of Italian columns and communication and supply lines reduced their fighting capabilities and their morale. A state of paranoia among Italian troops and civilians alike had sunk in as they became increasingly isolated from Rome. Fascist retaliation to Patriot attacks were brutal and often targeted the civilian population, which only further filled the ranks of the Patriots creating a cycle that lead to the eventual demise of Mussolini's Italian East Africa.
Britain's declaration of war against Italy reinvigorated the Patriot movement and paved the way for the final ousting of the Italians in Ethiopia and in the Horn of Africa. The Allied liberation campaign of Ethiopia began in the winter of 1940. Emperor Haile Selassie, with the support and cooperation of the British, was transported to the Sudan to work alongside Major Orde Wingate to organize and lead the main Ethiopian Patriot divisions that had fled fascist-controlled Ethiopia upon news of Britain's declaration of war.
The East African Campaign was conducted by a largely multi-African force and consisted of Ethiopian, Eritrean, British, Sudanese, Kenyan, Rhodesian, South African, Indian, Nigerian, Ghanaian and Free French units. Within months, the liberation of Ethiopia was achieved, and on May 5, 1941, five years to the day that the Emperor fled his capital, Haile Selassie was restored to his throne. The defeat of fascists in Ethiopia marked the first victory for the Allies in the Second World War and allowed for the remaining forces to be quickly moved up to Egypt to confront the Axis advance towards Cairo.
Ethiopia
Fiji was a British colony during World War II. The Fiji Defence Force served with New Zealand Army formations, under the Allied Pacific Ocean Areas command.
Fiji
Main article: Military history of Finland during World War II Finland
Main article: Military history of France during World War II France
The Free French Forces of the French National Committee, a London-based exile group led by Charles de Gaulle, were formed in 1940 to maintain the French commitment to the Allies and liberate French territory occupied by Germany. Together with the French resistance, they played a part in the Mediterranean Theatre and the liberation of western Europe, including France in 1944.
Free France
When France signed armistice agreements with Germany and Italy, the country was split into two parts, an occupied sector and an unoccupied sector. The government was located in unoccupied Vichy, and became known as the Vichy regime. The Vichy regime was led by Marshal Pétain. Vichy France is generally considered to have been an Axis state, although it remained officially neutral during the conflict. Prime Minister Pierre Laval repeatedly sought France's entry into the war on the Axis side, but was vetoed by Pétain. On several occasions Vichy forces were attacked by the Allies during the war, most notably in the invasion of Syria in 1941, during landings in French North Africa in November 1942 and the Madagascar campaign of 1943. In the fall of 1942 the Germans occupied all of continental France but allowed the Vichy government to continue operating as a result of Vichy North Africa violating the terms of the 1940 armistice by calling a cease-fire following Operation Torch. Vichy North Africa's government and military joined the Allies afterward. Laval was executed for high treason after the war.
Vichy France
The Free French Forces of the French National Committee, a London-based exile group led by Charles de Gaulle, were formed in 1940 to maintain the French commitment to the Allies and liberate French territory occupied by Germany. Together with the French resistance, they played a part in the Mediterranean Theatre and the liberation of western Europe, including France in 1944.
Free France
When France signed armistice agreements with Germany and Italy, the country was split into two parts, an occupied sector and an unoccupied sector. The government was located in unoccupied Vichy, and became known as the Vichy regime. The Vichy regime was led by Marshal Pétain. Vichy France is generally considered to have been an Axis state, although it remained officially neutral during the conflict. Prime Minister Pierre Laval repeatedly sought France's entry into the war on the Axis side, but was vetoed by Pétain. On several occasions Vichy forces were attacked by the Allies during the war, most notably in the invasion of Syria in 1941, during landings in French North Africa in November 1942 and the Madagascar campaign of 1943. In the fall of 1942 the Germans occupied all of continental France but allowed the Vichy government to continue operating as a result of Vichy North Africa violating the terms of the 1940 armistice by calling a cease-fire following Operation Torch. Vichy North Africa's government and military joined the Allies afterward. Laval was executed for high treason after the war.
Vichy France
Main article: Military history of Germany during World War II Germany
Reaching the Caucasus oilfields became one of the main objectives of Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union. But the armies of the Axis powers never got as far as the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (Georgian SSR). The Georgian SSR contributed almost 700,000 fighters (about 2% of the total 32-34 million citizens mobilized), out of which 79,500-350,000 were killed. It was also a vital source of textiles and munitions.
Some captured Georgians chose to fight for the Axis. They fought in the following units:
One Georgian battalion in Holland staged what has sometimes been described as Europe's last battle of World War II. This event was the Georgian Uprising of Texel.
Georgische Legion (Georgian volunteers but also included volunteers from other peoples of the region)
Freiwilligen-Stamm-Regiment 1 (Georgians volunteers)
SS-Waffengruppe Georgien (Georgian volunteers)
I.Sonderverband Bergmann Battalion (Georgian volunteers) Georgia
Reaching the Caucasus oilfields became one of the main objectives of Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union. But the armies of the Axis powers never got as far as the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (Georgian SSR). The Georgian SSR contributed almost 700,000 fighters (about 2% of the total 32-34 million citizens mobilized), out of which 79,500-350,000 were killed. It was also a vital source of textiles and munitions.
Some captured Georgians chose to fight for the Axis. They fought in the following units:
One Georgian battalion in Holland staged what has sometimes been described as Europe's last battle of World War II. This event was the Georgian Uprising of Texel.
Georgische Legion (Georgian volunteers but also included volunteers from other peoples of the region)
Freiwilligen-Stamm-Regiment 1 (Georgians volunteers)
SS-Waffengruppe Georgien (Georgian volunteers)
I.Sonderverband Bergmann Battalion (Georgian volunteers) Georgia
Main article: Military history of Gibraltar during World War II Gibraltar
Further information: Military history of Greece during World War II and Axis Occupation of Greece during WWII
Greece dealt the first victory for the Allies by resisting initial attempts of Italian invasion and pushing Mussolini's forces back into Albania. Hitler was reluctantly forced to send forces and delay the invasion of the Soviet Union by six weeks. The Germans also met fierce resistance on the island of Crete as the paratroopers suffered almost 7,000 casualties. These heavy losses eliminated the option of a massive airborne invasion of the Soviet Union and further expansion in the Mediterranean saving Malta, Gibraltar, Cyprus, and the Suez Canal from airborne invasion.
Greece
Guatemala initially stayed out of World War II, with President Jorge Ubico declaring the country's neutrality on September 4, 1941. This pronouncement was reinforced on September 9 with another declaration. Ubico implemented strong prohibitions on Nazi propaganda in Guatemala, which had one of Latin America's largest German immigrant populations. Later, Guatemala moved into the Allied camp — on December 9, 1941, it declared war on Japan, and three days later, it declared war on Germany and Italy.
Guatemala
Haiti remained neutral in World War II until the bombing of Pearl Harbor, declaring war on Japan the day after the attack, and on Germany and Italy shortly afterwards. Haiti gave food supplies to Allied forces and hosted a detachment of the United States Coast Guard but did not contribute troops. The President of Haiti, Élie Lescot, introduced several unpopular emergency measures during the war, which critics claimed were designed to increase his power. Lescot was deposed the year after the war ended.
Haiti
Honduras was initially neutral in the war but joined the Allied side after the attack on Pearl Harbor. It declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941, and on Germany and Italy on December 13. It contributed food and raw materials to the Allied war effort but did not send troops.
Honduras
Further information: Military history of Greece during World War II and Axis Occupation of Greece during WWII
Greece dealt the first victory for the Allies by resisting initial attempts of Italian invasion and pushing Mussolini's forces back into Albania. Hitler was reluctantly forced to send forces and delay the invasion of the Soviet Union by six weeks. The Germans also met fierce resistance on the island of Crete as the paratroopers suffered almost 7,000 casualties. These heavy losses eliminated the option of a massive airborne invasion of the Soviet Union and further expansion in the Mediterranean saving Malta, Gibraltar, Cyprus, and the Suez Canal from airborne invasion.
Greece
Guatemala initially stayed out of World War II, with President Jorge Ubico declaring the country's neutrality on September 4, 1941. This pronouncement was reinforced on September 9 with another declaration. Ubico implemented strong prohibitions on Nazi propaganda in Guatemala, which had one of Latin America's largest German immigrant populations. Later, Guatemala moved into the Allied camp — on December 9, 1941, it declared war on Japan, and three days later, it declared war on Germany and Italy.
Guatemala
Haiti remained neutral in World War II until the bombing of Pearl Harbor, declaring war on Japan the day after the attack, and on Germany and Italy shortly afterwards. Haiti gave food supplies to Allied forces and hosted a detachment of the United States Coast Guard but did not contribute troops. The President of Haiti, Élie Lescot, introduced several unpopular emergency measures during the war, which critics claimed were designed to increase his power. Lescot was deposed the year after the war ended.
Haiti
Honduras was initially neutral in the war but joined the Allied side after the attack on Pearl Harbor. It declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941, and on Germany and Italy on December 13. It contributed food and raw materials to the Allied war effort but did not send troops.
Honduras
Main article: Japanese Occupation of Hong Kong Hong Kong
Hungary was a significant German ally. It signed the Tripartite Pact on November 20, 1940, and joined in the invasion of the Soviet Union the next year. When, in 1944, the government of Regent Miklós Horthy wished to sign a ceasefire with the Allies, he was overthrown by the Nazis and replaced by a government run by the fascist Arrow Cross movement, which ruled the country until it was overrun by the Soviets.
Hungary
The Indian Empire (including the areas covered by the later Republic of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) was controlled politically by Britain during the war and was covered by Britain's declaration of war. On September 12, 1939, the Upper House of the Central Legislature of India sent a formal message of admiration to Poland. On the same day, the Aga Khan placed his services at the disposal of the Government of India.
The Indian 5th Division fought in the Sudan against the Italians before being moved to defend Libya against the Germans. The Division was then moved to Iraq to protect the oilfields. After this the division was moved to the Burma front, together with eight other Indian Divisions, and then occupied Malaya. It was finally moved to Java to disarm the occupying Japanese garrison. The Indian 4th Division fought in North Africa, Syria, Palestine and Cyprus before being sent into Italy. Together with the 8th and 10th Divisions it participated in the taking of Monte Cassino, after which it was moved to Greece. India also provided the Allies with assault and training bases, and provided huge quantities of food and other materials to other Commonwealth forces, and to people on the British home front.
Over 2.5 million Indian Empire citizens fought with the Indian Army, Royal Indian Air Force and Royal Indian Navy, forming the largest army raised by voluntary enlistment. Part of the Indian Empire was occupied by Japanese forces during the war, and India suffered 1.5 million civilian casualties, as well as up to 3 million dead from famine in the Bengal region, which was created by both the Japanese military actions and the British administration. Over 36,000 Indian members of the armed forces were killed or went missing in action, and 64,354 were wounded during the war. Indian personnel received 4,000 awards for gallantry, including 31 Victoria Crosses. About 40,000 Indians fought on the side of the Japanese in the Indian National Army, about 2,000 were recruited by Nazi Germany for the Tiger Legion.
Indian Empire
On March 23, 1942, Japanese forces invaded the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. In December 1943, the Japanese-sponsored Free India Movement (Provisional Government of Free India) was formed. The Andaman Islands were renamed Shaheed Islands, and the Nicobars were renamed Sawaraj Islands. Andaman & Nicobar Islanders fought alongside the Japanese during this time. The islands were not re-occupied by the British until October 6, 1945.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
See Netherlands East Indies
Indonesia
Iceland was a free state at the outbreak of war in personal union with the King of Denmark acting as head of state. After the invasion of Denmark by German forces, Iceland lost all contact with the King. Following this, British forces invaded Iceland on May 10, 1940, primarily to deny Germany the same option. Though most of Reykjavík's modest police force was absent, ironically preparing for a potential invasion, a small armed force was present, but was ordered not to resist. The British proceeded to arrest a number of German citizens, including the German Consul, seized communications and blocked roads leading into the town, effectively isolating Reykjavík from the rest of the country. The Icelandic government formally objected to the invasion on grounds of Icelandic neutrality and national sovereignty, but the British insisted on peaceful co-existence, which the Icelanders reluctantly agreed to.
During the height of the occupation, 25 thousand British soldiers were stationed in Iceland, compared to roughly 40 thousand inhabitants of Reykjavík. On July 7, 1941, control of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States, since British forces were required elsewhere. Iceland experienced an economic boom during the occupation, as many Icelanders took jobs for the foreigners, working mostly as carpenters, and some say that bretavinnan (roughly, the British Jobs) provided some of the successes of the post-war Icelandic economy.
On June 17, 1944, Iceland became an independent republic and cut all ties with Denmark. Despite being invaded by Allied forces in 1940, Iceland was and remained neutral throughout the duration of the Second World War.
Iceland
During the start of the war the Allies demanded that Iran remove German nationals from Iran fearing they might be Nazi spies or harm the British owned oil but, Reza Shah refused stating that they had nothing to do with the Nazis.
German demand for oil rose and the Allies worried that Germany would look to neutral Iran for help. Soon the Allies questioned themselves about Iran neutrality and they gave Reza Shah a final warning to remove the German workers. He refused once again. In August 1941, the British and Soviet troops invaded Iran (Operation Countenance) and, in September 1941, forced Reza Shah Pahlavi to abdicate his throne. He was replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who was willing to fight the Axis Powers. Within months Iran entered the war on the side of the Allies and became known as "The Bridge of Victory".
Iran's geographical position was also important to the Allies. It provided a 'blue water' supply route to the Soviet Union via the port of Bandar Abbas and a specially constructed railway route. The supply routes were known collectively as the Persian Corridor. Soviet political operatives known "agitprops" infiltrated Iran and helped establish the Comintern affiliate Tudeh Party in early in 1942.
By January 1942, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union agreed to end their occupation six months after the end of the war. The Soviet Union fomented revolts among Azeris and Kurds in Iran and soon formed the People's Republic of Azerbaijan (December 1945) and the Kurdish People's Republic not long after, both being run by Soviet-controlled leaders. However, Soviet troops remained in Iran following the January 1946 expiration of a wartime treaty providing for the presence of American, British, and Soviet troops in Iran during the war. [4]
Iran
Further information: Anglo-Iraqi War
Iraq was important to Britain through its position on a route to India and the strategic oil supplies that it provided. After the ejection of the Ottoman Turks at the end of the First World War, these were protected by a significant Royal Air Force base at Habbaniya and the maintenance of sympathetic governments. Because of the United Kingdom's weakness early in the war, Iraq backed away from its Anglo-Iraqi Alliance with the country. When the British High Command requested to send reinforcements to Iraq, the country's Prime Minister, Nuri-es Said, allowed a small British force to land. Consequently he was forced to resign after a pro-German coup under Rashid Ali in April 1941. Later British requests to reinforce Iraq were denied by the new leadership.
The new regime secretly began negotiations with the Axis Powers. The Germans quickly responded and sent military aid by Luftwaffe aircraft to Baghdad via Syria. Indian troops consequently invaded in mid-April 1941 and reached Baghdad and RAF Habbaniyah in May. The Iraqi army attacked Habbaniyah but quickly capitulated and Rashid Ali fled the country. The United Kingdom forced Iraq to declare war on the Axis in 1942. British forces remained to protect the vital oil supplies. British and Indian operations in Iraq should be viewed in conjunction with events in neighbouring Syria and Persia (Iran).
Iraq
The island of Ireland was divided politically between Éire (as the Republic of Ireland was officially called at the time) and Northern Ireland.
Ireland
Further information: The Emergency and IRA Abwehr WW2
At the outbreak of war, Éire was still a member of the then British Commonwealth but chose to remain neutral, the only such member state to do so. Despite this Éire could be described as a neutral sympathetic to the Allies during the period Substantive contacts between the British and Irish authorities came in the form of Plan W- the British reoccupation of Ireland in response to a feared German invasion (Case Green).
In 1945, the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of Éire, Eamon de Valera, paid a visit to the German Minister in Dublin to express sympathy over the death of the Führer, Adolf Hitler. This action has been defended as proper given the state's strict adherence to a policy of neutrality. Yet no such consideration was extended to the United States on the death of the President.
Éire
As a part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland participated fully as a belligerent. The particular contributions were manpower (about 37,000 Northern Ireland residents volunteered for the British Armed forces), food, industry and geographical position. Despite urgings from the Stormont government, conscription was never implemented in the region. The British Government had decided not to conscript in Northern Ireland following mass protests in 1941. As part of fears over the invasion of Northern Ireland via Plan Kathleen, or the invasion of Éire via Plan Green, the British and Irish conducted joint planning to repel a German invasion under the guise of Plan W. Joint training between Irish Defense Force personnel and British special operations personnel also took place in County Down.
Northern Ireland
Hungary was a significant German ally. It signed the Tripartite Pact on November 20, 1940, and joined in the invasion of the Soviet Union the next year. When, in 1944, the government of Regent Miklós Horthy wished to sign a ceasefire with the Allies, he was overthrown by the Nazis and replaced by a government run by the fascist Arrow Cross movement, which ruled the country until it was overrun by the Soviets.
Hungary
The Indian Empire (including the areas covered by the later Republic of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) was controlled politically by Britain during the war and was covered by Britain's declaration of war. On September 12, 1939, the Upper House of the Central Legislature of India sent a formal message of admiration to Poland. On the same day, the Aga Khan placed his services at the disposal of the Government of India.
The Indian 5th Division fought in the Sudan against the Italians before being moved to defend Libya against the Germans. The Division was then moved to Iraq to protect the oilfields. After this the division was moved to the Burma front, together with eight other Indian Divisions, and then occupied Malaya. It was finally moved to Java to disarm the occupying Japanese garrison. The Indian 4th Division fought in North Africa, Syria, Palestine and Cyprus before being sent into Italy. Together with the 8th and 10th Divisions it participated in the taking of Monte Cassino, after which it was moved to Greece. India also provided the Allies with assault and training bases, and provided huge quantities of food and other materials to other Commonwealth forces, and to people on the British home front.
Over 2.5 million Indian Empire citizens fought with the Indian Army, Royal Indian Air Force and Royal Indian Navy, forming the largest army raised by voluntary enlistment. Part of the Indian Empire was occupied by Japanese forces during the war, and India suffered 1.5 million civilian casualties, as well as up to 3 million dead from famine in the Bengal region, which was created by both the Japanese military actions and the British administration. Over 36,000 Indian members of the armed forces were killed or went missing in action, and 64,354 were wounded during the war. Indian personnel received 4,000 awards for gallantry, including 31 Victoria Crosses. About 40,000 Indians fought on the side of the Japanese in the Indian National Army, about 2,000 were recruited by Nazi Germany for the Tiger Legion.
Indian Empire
On March 23, 1942, Japanese forces invaded the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. In December 1943, the Japanese-sponsored Free India Movement (Provisional Government of Free India) was formed. The Andaman Islands were renamed Shaheed Islands, and the Nicobars were renamed Sawaraj Islands. Andaman & Nicobar Islanders fought alongside the Japanese during this time. The islands were not re-occupied by the British until October 6, 1945.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
See Netherlands East Indies
Indonesia
Iceland was a free state at the outbreak of war in personal union with the King of Denmark acting as head of state. After the invasion of Denmark by German forces, Iceland lost all contact with the King. Following this, British forces invaded Iceland on May 10, 1940, primarily to deny Germany the same option. Though most of Reykjavík's modest police force was absent, ironically preparing for a potential invasion, a small armed force was present, but was ordered not to resist. The British proceeded to arrest a number of German citizens, including the German Consul, seized communications and blocked roads leading into the town, effectively isolating Reykjavík from the rest of the country. The Icelandic government formally objected to the invasion on grounds of Icelandic neutrality and national sovereignty, but the British insisted on peaceful co-existence, which the Icelanders reluctantly agreed to.
During the height of the occupation, 25 thousand British soldiers were stationed in Iceland, compared to roughly 40 thousand inhabitants of Reykjavík. On July 7, 1941, control of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States, since British forces were required elsewhere. Iceland experienced an economic boom during the occupation, as many Icelanders took jobs for the foreigners, working mostly as carpenters, and some say that bretavinnan (roughly, the British Jobs) provided some of the successes of the post-war Icelandic economy.
On June 17, 1944, Iceland became an independent republic and cut all ties with Denmark. Despite being invaded by Allied forces in 1940, Iceland was and remained neutral throughout the duration of the Second World War.
Iceland
During the start of the war the Allies demanded that Iran remove German nationals from Iran fearing they might be Nazi spies or harm the British owned oil but, Reza Shah refused stating that they had nothing to do with the Nazis.
German demand for oil rose and the Allies worried that Germany would look to neutral Iran for help. Soon the Allies questioned themselves about Iran neutrality and they gave Reza Shah a final warning to remove the German workers. He refused once again. In August 1941, the British and Soviet troops invaded Iran (Operation Countenance) and, in September 1941, forced Reza Shah Pahlavi to abdicate his throne. He was replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who was willing to fight the Axis Powers. Within months Iran entered the war on the side of the Allies and became known as "The Bridge of Victory".
Iran's geographical position was also important to the Allies. It provided a 'blue water' supply route to the Soviet Union via the port of Bandar Abbas and a specially constructed railway route. The supply routes were known collectively as the Persian Corridor. Soviet political operatives known "agitprops" infiltrated Iran and helped establish the Comintern affiliate Tudeh Party in early in 1942.
By January 1942, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union agreed to end their occupation six months after the end of the war. The Soviet Union fomented revolts among Azeris and Kurds in Iran and soon formed the People's Republic of Azerbaijan (December 1945) and the Kurdish People's Republic not long after, both being run by Soviet-controlled leaders. However, Soviet troops remained in Iran following the January 1946 expiration of a wartime treaty providing for the presence of American, British, and Soviet troops in Iran during the war. [4]
Iran
Further information: Anglo-Iraqi War
Iraq was important to Britain through its position on a route to India and the strategic oil supplies that it provided. After the ejection of the Ottoman Turks at the end of the First World War, these were protected by a significant Royal Air Force base at Habbaniya and the maintenance of sympathetic governments. Because of the United Kingdom's weakness early in the war, Iraq backed away from its Anglo-Iraqi Alliance with the country. When the British High Command requested to send reinforcements to Iraq, the country's Prime Minister, Nuri-es Said, allowed a small British force to land. Consequently he was forced to resign after a pro-German coup under Rashid Ali in April 1941. Later British requests to reinforce Iraq were denied by the new leadership.
The new regime secretly began negotiations with the Axis Powers. The Germans quickly responded and sent military aid by Luftwaffe aircraft to Baghdad via Syria. Indian troops consequently invaded in mid-April 1941 and reached Baghdad and RAF Habbaniyah in May. The Iraqi army attacked Habbaniyah but quickly capitulated and Rashid Ali fled the country. The United Kingdom forced Iraq to declare war on the Axis in 1942. British forces remained to protect the vital oil supplies. British and Indian operations in Iraq should be viewed in conjunction with events in neighbouring Syria and Persia (Iran).
Iraq
The island of Ireland was divided politically between Éire (as the Republic of Ireland was officially called at the time) and Northern Ireland.
Ireland
Further information: The Emergency and IRA Abwehr WW2
At the outbreak of war, Éire was still a member of the then British Commonwealth but chose to remain neutral, the only such member state to do so. Despite this Éire could be described as a neutral sympathetic to the Allies during the period Substantive contacts between the British and Irish authorities came in the form of Plan W- the British reoccupation of Ireland in response to a feared German invasion (Case Green).
In 1945, the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of Éire, Eamon de Valera, paid a visit to the German Minister in Dublin to express sympathy over the death of the Führer, Adolf Hitler. This action has been defended as proper given the state's strict adherence to a policy of neutrality. Yet no such consideration was extended to the United States on the death of the President.
ÉireAs a part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland participated fully as a belligerent. The particular contributions were manpower (about 37,000 Northern Ireland residents volunteered for the British Armed forces), food, industry and geographical position. Despite urgings from the Stormont government, conscription was never implemented in the region. The British Government had decided not to conscript in Northern Ireland following mass protests in 1941. As part of fears over the invasion of Northern Ireland via Plan Kathleen, or the invasion of Éire via Plan Green, the British and Irish conducted joint planning to repel a German invasion under the guise of Plan W. Joint training between Irish Defense Force personnel and British special operations personnel also took place in County Down.
Northern Ireland
Main article: Military history of Italy during World War II Italy
Japan was leader of the Axis Powers in the Pacific Theatre. Some people consider that World War II actually began with the invasion of China by Japan.The war ended with the capitulation of Japan after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan, like Germany, has built back and is now one of the leading countries in industrial production.
Japan
While the Korean peninsula was occupied by Japan, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in exile in China was recognized by the allies after 1941 of holding the de jure sovereignty of the Korean people. The provisional government declared war against Japan and Germany on December 9, 1941, and its small Korean Liberation Army participated in the allied side in the Chinese and Southeast Asian Theatres. In 1945, the KLA was preparing for the incursionary operation into Korea with the cooperation of United States, but days before the departure of the leading unit, the war had ended.
Korea
In 1945 the Japanese occupied Vientiane and Luang Phrabāng in April. King Sīsavāngvong was detained by the Japanese, but his son Crown Prince Savāngvatthanā called on all Lao to resist the occupiers.
Prince Phetxarāt, however, opposed this position, and thought that Lao independence could be gained by siding with the Japanese, who made him Prime Minister of Luang Phrabāng, though not of Laos as a whole. In practice the country was in chaos and Phetxarāt's government had no real authority. Another Lao group, the Lao Sēri (Free Lao), received unofficial support from the Free Thai movement in the Isan region.
Thailand re-annexed a small portion of Laos following the conclusion of the French-Thai War in 1941. The territories were only returned to French sovereignty in October 1946.
Latvia
Lebanon was under the control of France during the war and thus controlled by the puppet Vichy government after France's capitulation. Lebanon was wrested from Vichy France by Allied forces during the Syria-Lebanon campaign. De Gaulle declared Lebanon independent on November 22, 1943.
Lebanon
Liberia granted Allied forces access to its territory early in the war. It was used as a transit point for troops and resources bound for North Africa, particularly war supplies flown from Parnamirim (near Natal) in Brazil. Perhaps more importantly, it served as one of the Allies' only sources of rubber during the war; the plantations of Southeast Asia had been taken over by the Japanese. The importance of this resource led to significant improvement of Liberia's transport infrastructure and a modernisation of its economy. Liberia's strategic significance was emphasised when Franklin Roosevelt, after attending the Casablanca Conference, visited Liberia and met President Edwin Barclay.
Despite its assistance to the Allies, however, Liberia was reluctant to end its official neutrality and declare war on Germany. This did not occur until January 27, 1944.
Liberia
Shortly following the end of World War I, Liechtenstein concluded a customs and monetary agreement with neighboring Switzerland. In 1919, the close ties between the two nations were strengthened when Liechtenstein entrusted Switzerland with its external relations. At the outbreak of war, Prince Franz Josef II, who had ascended the throne only months before, promised to keep the principality out of the war and relied upon its close ties to Switzerland for its protection.
Attempts to sway the government did occur. After an attempted coup in March 1939, the National Socialist "German National Movement in Liechtenstein" was active but small. The organization, as well as any Nazi sympathies, virtually disappeared following the eruption of war.
Many of the theories that exist concerning the Papacy, Pope Pius XII, and Nazi Germany include Liechtenstein as a component. One such theory talks of a planned German occupation of the Vatican and the establishment of a "puppet-papacy" in neutral Liechtenstein.
Liechtenstein
As a result of Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, Lithuania was occupied by the Red Army and forcibly annexed into the Soviet Union along with Latvia and Estonia, without giving any military resistance. This made some Lithuanians side with the Germans when Hitler eventually invaded the Soviet Union in the hopes to restore Lithuania's independence. Some of the collaborators were involved in the Holocaust and other crimes against humanity. A Lithuanian division was also formed in the Red Army. According to Krivosheev, 11,600 Lithuanians died fighting for the RKKA.
Lithuania
Japan was leader of the Axis Powers in the Pacific Theatre. Some people consider that World War II actually began with the invasion of China by Japan.The war ended with the capitulation of Japan after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan, like Germany, has built back and is now one of the leading countries in industrial production.
Japan
While the Korean peninsula was occupied by Japan, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in exile in China was recognized by the allies after 1941 of holding the de jure sovereignty of the Korean people. The provisional government declared war against Japan and Germany on December 9, 1941, and its small Korean Liberation Army participated in the allied side in the Chinese and Southeast Asian Theatres. In 1945, the KLA was preparing for the incursionary operation into Korea with the cooperation of United States, but days before the departure of the leading unit, the war had ended.
Korea
In 1945 the Japanese occupied Vientiane and Luang Phrabāng in April. King Sīsavāngvong was detained by the Japanese, but his son Crown Prince Savāngvatthanā called on all Lao to resist the occupiers.
Prince Phetxarāt, however, opposed this position, and thought that Lao independence could be gained by siding with the Japanese, who made him Prime Minister of Luang Phrabāng, though not of Laos as a whole. In practice the country was in chaos and Phetxarāt's government had no real authority. Another Lao group, the Lao Sēri (Free Lao), received unofficial support from the Free Thai movement in the Isan region.
Thailand re-annexed a small portion of Laos following the conclusion of the French-Thai War in 1941. The territories were only returned to French sovereignty in October 1946.
Latvia
Lebanon was under the control of France during the war and thus controlled by the puppet Vichy government after France's capitulation. Lebanon was wrested from Vichy France by Allied forces during the Syria-Lebanon campaign. De Gaulle declared Lebanon independent on November 22, 1943.
Lebanon
Liberia granted Allied forces access to its territory early in the war. It was used as a transit point for troops and resources bound for North Africa, particularly war supplies flown from Parnamirim (near Natal) in Brazil. Perhaps more importantly, it served as one of the Allies' only sources of rubber during the war; the plantations of Southeast Asia had been taken over by the Japanese. The importance of this resource led to significant improvement of Liberia's transport infrastructure and a modernisation of its economy. Liberia's strategic significance was emphasised when Franklin Roosevelt, after attending the Casablanca Conference, visited Liberia and met President Edwin Barclay.
Despite its assistance to the Allies, however, Liberia was reluctant to end its official neutrality and declare war on Germany. This did not occur until January 27, 1944.
Liberia
Shortly following the end of World War I, Liechtenstein concluded a customs and monetary agreement with neighboring Switzerland. In 1919, the close ties between the two nations were strengthened when Liechtenstein entrusted Switzerland with its external relations. At the outbreak of war, Prince Franz Josef II, who had ascended the throne only months before, promised to keep the principality out of the war and relied upon its close ties to Switzerland for its protection.
Attempts to sway the government did occur. After an attempted coup in March 1939, the National Socialist "German National Movement in Liechtenstein" was active but small. The organization, as well as any Nazi sympathies, virtually disappeared following the eruption of war.
Many of the theories that exist concerning the Papacy, Pope Pius XII, and Nazi Germany include Liechtenstein as a component. One such theory talks of a planned German occupation of the Vatican and the establishment of a "puppet-papacy" in neutral Liechtenstein.
Liechtenstein
As a result of Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, Lithuania was occupied by the Red Army and forcibly annexed into the Soviet Union along with Latvia and Estonia, without giving any military resistance. This made some Lithuanians side with the Germans when Hitler eventually invaded the Soviet Union in the hopes to restore Lithuania's independence. Some of the collaborators were involved in the Holocaust and other crimes against humanity. A Lithuanian division was also formed in the Red Army. According to Krivosheev, 11,600 Lithuanians died fighting for the RKKA.
Lithuania
Main article: Military history of Luxembourg during World War II Luxembourg
Malaya was under British rule before the war began. It was occupied by Japan in 1942 through 1945. The Malayan Communist Party became the backbone of the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army.
Malaya
Malta was a British colony during World War II. The Legislative Council of Malta reaffirmed the people's loyalty to Britain on September 5, 1939.
Between June 1940 and December 1942, Malta was one of the most heavily bombed places on earth. Malta became the besieged and battered arena for one of the most decisive struggles of World War II, with some historians calling this battle The Mediterranean Stalingrad. The UK awarded the George Cross to the island of Malta in a letter dated April 15, 1942, from King George VI to the island's Governor William Dobbie: "To honour her brave people, I award the George Cross to the Island Fortress of Malta to bear witness to a heroism and devotion that will long be famous in history".
The fortitude of the population under sustained enemy air raids and a naval blockade which almost saw them starved into submission, won widespread admiration in Britain and other Allied nations. The George Cross is woven into the Flag of Malta.
Malta
Established in 1931 as a puppet state of Japan, the state of Manchukuo was led by Pu Yi, the last Emperor of China, who reigned as Emperor Kang De. The state contributed little to the war but remained a loyal ally to Japan until 1945. In 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, and Manchukuo was subsequently invaded and abolished. Roughly half the state was returned to China whilst the Korean peninsula was partitioned to form North Korea and South Korea.
Manchukuo
Mexico declared war on Germany on June 1, 1942, following the sinking of two Mexican oil ships in the Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican Air Force's Escuadron Aereo de Pelea 201 (201st Fighter Squadron) served with the U.S. Fifth Air Force in the South West Pacific Area.[5]
Mexico
While Prince Louis II's sympathies were strongly pro-French, he tried to keep Monaco neutral during World War II, and he supported the Vichy France government of his old army colleague, Philippe Pétain. In 1943, the Italian army invaded and occupied Monaco, setting up a fascist government administration. Shortly thereafter, following Mussolini's collapse in Italy, the German army occupied Monaco and began the deportation of the Jewish population. Among them was René Blum, founder of the Opera, who died in a Nazi concentration camp.
Monaco
During the war, Mongolia was ruled by the communist government of Khorloogiin Choibalsan and was closely linked to the Soviet Union. The Mongolian Army frequently fought alongside the Red Army, and Mongolia provided supplies and raw materials to the Soviet military. Fighting broke out between Mongolia and Japan in 1939, when Japanese troops stationed in northern China launched an invasion of eastern Mongolia.
A joint Soviet-Mongolian counter-offensive, led by Soviet general Georgy Zhukov, heavily defeated the Japanese, and a pact was signed in which Japan recognised Mongolia's "territorial integrity". Japan did not attempt to invade Mongolia again but kept troops stationed along the Mongolian border. As the Soviet Union withdrew troops from the east to focus on the German Operation Barbarossa, Mongolian forces became more strategically important. On August 10, 1945, Mongolia declared war on Japan once again and took part in the Soviet invasion of Japanese-occupied northern China.
Mongolia
Most of Morocco was a protectorate of France during World War II. When France was defeated, Morocco came under the control of the Vichy regime, and therefore was nominally on the side of the Axis powers, although an active resistance movement operated. In November 1942, it was invaded by the Allies as part of Operation Torch. From that point, Moroccan volunteers (the Goumiere) fought on the side of the Allies.
A small area in northern Morocco, Spanish Morocco, was a Spanish protectorate and remained neutral throughout the war, as did the international city of Tangier.
Morocco
Nepal declared war on Germany on September 4, 1939, and offered Gurkha troops to Britain.
Nepal
Malaya was under British rule before the war began. It was occupied by Japan in 1942 through 1945. The Malayan Communist Party became the backbone of the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army.
Malaya
Malta was a British colony during World War II. The Legislative Council of Malta reaffirmed the people's loyalty to Britain on September 5, 1939.
Between June 1940 and December 1942, Malta was one of the most heavily bombed places on earth. Malta became the besieged and battered arena for one of the most decisive struggles of World War II, with some historians calling this battle The Mediterranean Stalingrad. The UK awarded the George Cross to the island of Malta in a letter dated April 15, 1942, from King George VI to the island's Governor William Dobbie: "To honour her brave people, I award the George Cross to the Island Fortress of Malta to bear witness to a heroism and devotion that will long be famous in history".
The fortitude of the population under sustained enemy air raids and a naval blockade which almost saw them starved into submission, won widespread admiration in Britain and other Allied nations. The George Cross is woven into the Flag of Malta.
Malta
Established in 1931 as a puppet state of Japan, the state of Manchukuo was led by Pu Yi, the last Emperor of China, who reigned as Emperor Kang De. The state contributed little to the war but remained a loyal ally to Japan until 1945. In 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, and Manchukuo was subsequently invaded and abolished. Roughly half the state was returned to China whilst the Korean peninsula was partitioned to form North Korea and South Korea.
Manchukuo
Mexico declared war on Germany on June 1, 1942, following the sinking of two Mexican oil ships in the Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican Air Force's Escuadron Aereo de Pelea 201 (201st Fighter Squadron) served with the U.S. Fifth Air Force in the South West Pacific Area.[5]
Mexico
While Prince Louis II's sympathies were strongly pro-French, he tried to keep Monaco neutral during World War II, and he supported the Vichy France government of his old army colleague, Philippe Pétain. In 1943, the Italian army invaded and occupied Monaco, setting up a fascist government administration. Shortly thereafter, following Mussolini's collapse in Italy, the German army occupied Monaco and began the deportation of the Jewish population. Among them was René Blum, founder of the Opera, who died in a Nazi concentration camp.
Monaco
During the war, Mongolia was ruled by the communist government of Khorloogiin Choibalsan and was closely linked to the Soviet Union. The Mongolian Army frequently fought alongside the Red Army, and Mongolia provided supplies and raw materials to the Soviet military. Fighting broke out between Mongolia and Japan in 1939, when Japanese troops stationed in northern China launched an invasion of eastern Mongolia.
A joint Soviet-Mongolian counter-offensive, led by Soviet general Georgy Zhukov, heavily defeated the Japanese, and a pact was signed in which Japan recognised Mongolia's "territorial integrity". Japan did not attempt to invade Mongolia again but kept troops stationed along the Mongolian border. As the Soviet Union withdrew troops from the east to focus on the German Operation Barbarossa, Mongolian forces became more strategically important. On August 10, 1945, Mongolia declared war on Japan once again and took part in the Soviet invasion of Japanese-occupied northern China.
Mongolia
Most of Morocco was a protectorate of France during World War II. When France was defeated, Morocco came under the control of the Vichy regime, and therefore was nominally on the side of the Axis powers, although an active resistance movement operated. In November 1942, it was invaded by the Allies as part of Operation Torch. From that point, Moroccan volunteers (the Goumiere) fought on the side of the Allies.
A small area in northern Morocco, Spanish Morocco, was a Spanish protectorate and remained neutral throughout the war, as did the international city of Tangier.
Morocco
Nepal declared war on Germany on September 4, 1939, and offered Gurkha troops to Britain.
Nepal
Main article: Military history of the Netherlands during World War II Netherlands
The rich oil resources of the Dutch East Indies were arguably a prime objective of the Japanese military in its attack on the Allies from December 7, 1941. The Royal Netherlands Navy and the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army were part of the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, until the Allied forces in the Netherlands East Indies were defeated by Japan in March 1942. Some Dutch personnel and ships escaped to Australia, where they continued to fight the Japanese. The Dutch East Indies was occupied by the Japanese for the remainder of the war.
Netherlands East Indies
During World War II the country of Newfoundland was a dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations and not a part of Canada. It joined the war on September 4, 1939, declaring war on Germany. Fearing that a German invasion of Newfoundland could be used as a prelude to an attack on Canada, in 1940 Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and Newfoundland Governor Sir Humphrey T. Walwyn entered into negotiations regarding the strengthening of defense positions along the Newfoundland coast. Not withstanding their separate political identity, the defense of Newfoundland and the Newfoundland Home Guard armed forces were integrated with the Canada military, and both governments agreed to the formation of a joint coastal defense battery. As part of the Anglo-American Lend Lease agreement, the United States was granted military air and naval bases on Newfoundland territory at Argentia, Stephenville and St John's.
Newfoundlanders were encouraged to enlist in the forces of the United Kingdom and Canada. The Royal Navy enlisted some 3,500 from the Newfoundland Naval Reserve of those whom Churchill called, "the best small boat sailors in the world." The Royal Artillery raised two regiments, the 57th (later 166th) Newfoundland Field Regiment which saw action in North Africa and Italy and 59th Newfoundland Heavy Artillery which began service as coastal artillery unit in England and later participated in the campaigns in Normandy and northwestern Europe. Another 700 Newfoundlanders served in the Royal Air Force, most notably with the 125th Newfoundland Squadron. In all, some 15,000 Newfoundlanders saw active service, and thousands more were engaged in the hazardous work of the Merchant Navy. Some 900 Newfoundlanders (including at least 257 merchant mariners) lost their lives in the conflict, and over 100 Newfoundland civilians were killed in the sinking of the SS Caribou by a German U-boat.
Newfoundland was the only location in North America to be subject to direct attack by German forces in World War II when German U-boats attacked four allied ore carriers and the loading pier at Bell Island. The carriers S.S. Saganaga and the S.S. Lord Strathcona were sunk by U 513 on September 5, 1942, while the S.S. Rosecastle and P.L.M. 27 were sunk by U 518 on November 2, 1942 with the loss of 69 lives.
Newfoundland
The rich oil resources of the Dutch East Indies were arguably a prime objective of the Japanese military in its attack on the Allies from December 7, 1941. The Royal Netherlands Navy and the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army were part of the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, until the Allied forces in the Netherlands East Indies were defeated by Japan in March 1942. Some Dutch personnel and ships escaped to Australia, where they continued to fight the Japanese. The Dutch East Indies was occupied by the Japanese for the remainder of the war.
Netherlands East Indies
During World War II the country of Newfoundland was a dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations and not a part of Canada. It joined the war on September 4, 1939, declaring war on Germany. Fearing that a German invasion of Newfoundland could be used as a prelude to an attack on Canada, in 1940 Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and Newfoundland Governor Sir Humphrey T. Walwyn entered into negotiations regarding the strengthening of defense positions along the Newfoundland coast. Not withstanding their separate political identity, the defense of Newfoundland and the Newfoundland Home Guard armed forces were integrated with the Canada military, and both governments agreed to the formation of a joint coastal defense battery. As part of the Anglo-American Lend Lease agreement, the United States was granted military air and naval bases on Newfoundland territory at Argentia, Stephenville and St John's.
Newfoundlanders were encouraged to enlist in the forces of the United Kingdom and Canada. The Royal Navy enlisted some 3,500 from the Newfoundland Naval Reserve of those whom Churchill called, "the best small boat sailors in the world." The Royal Artillery raised two regiments, the 57th (later 166th) Newfoundland Field Regiment which saw action in North Africa and Italy and 59th Newfoundland Heavy Artillery which began service as coastal artillery unit in England and later participated in the campaigns in Normandy and northwestern Europe. Another 700 Newfoundlanders served in the Royal Air Force, most notably with the 125th Newfoundland Squadron. In all, some 15,000 Newfoundlanders saw active service, and thousands more were engaged in the hazardous work of the Merchant Navy. Some 900 Newfoundlanders (including at least 257 merchant mariners) lost their lives in the conflict, and over 100 Newfoundland civilians were killed in the sinking of the SS Caribou by a German U-boat.
Newfoundland was the only location in North America to be subject to direct attack by German forces in World War II when German U-boats attacked four allied ore carriers and the loading pier at Bell Island. The carriers S.S. Saganaga and the S.S. Lord Strathcona were sunk by U 513 on September 5, 1942, while the S.S. Rosecastle and P.L.M. 27 were sunk by U 518 on November 2, 1942 with the loss of 69 lives.
Newfoundland
Main article: Military history of New Zealand during World War II New Zealand
During the war, Nicaragua was ruled by Anastasio Somoza García, who had assumed the presidency after a military coup in 1937. Somoza was an ally of the United States, and Nicaragua declared war on Japan immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Three days later, on December 11, Nicaragua declared war on Germany and Italy, and on December 19, it declared war on Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary.
Nicaragua
Northern Rhodesia (later Zambia) was a British colony. As such, it was covered by the British declaration of war. Northern Rhodesian units served in East Africa.
Northern Rhodesia
During the war, Nicaragua was ruled by Anastasio Somoza García, who had assumed the presidency after a military coup in 1937. Somoza was an ally of the United States, and Nicaragua declared war on Japan immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Three days later, on December 11, Nicaragua declared war on Germany and Italy, and on December 19, it declared war on Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary.
Nicaragua
Northern Rhodesia (later Zambia) was a British colony. As such, it was covered by the British declaration of war. Northern Rhodesian units served in East Africa.
Northern Rhodesia
Main articles: Norwegian resistance movement and Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany Norway
The Sultan of Oman declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939. Omanese forces fought under British command in the Middle East theatre.
Oman
Panama was under continued American control throughout the war; the Panama Canal provided the U.S. military with the ability to move troops and materiel rapidly between the Pacific and European theaters.
Panama
Paraguay's authoritarian government under Higinio Morínigo was sympathetic to the Axis powers early in the war; the country's large German community in particular were supporters of Nazism. Serious thought was given to joining the war on Germany's side, however Franklin Roosevelt managed to avoid this happening with aid and military hardware in 1942. Despite this, Paraguay did not declare war on Germany until February 2, 1945, when it was clear the Allies were going to win.
Paraguay
Peru remained neutral until 1941, but when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, President Manuel Prado Ugarteche became the first South American leader to declare war on the Axis powers. Because of its ability to produce aviation fuel and proximity to the Panama Canal, the oil refinery and port city of Talara, in northwest Peru, became a very major American air base. The Peruvian Navy patrolled the canal.
Peru
See also: Military history of the Philippines during World War II
In 1941, the Philippine Commonwealth was a semi-independent commonwealth of the United States. The Philippine Army was commanded by the U.S. General Douglas MacArthur, and the Philippines was one of the first countries invaded by Japan. Filipino forces and the U.S. Army maintained a stubborn resistance. MacArthur withdrew his headquarters to Australia, where he made his famous statement "I came out of Bataan and I shall return". Allied forces in the Philippines officially surrendered at Corregidor, on May 8, 1942. Despite the surrender, resistance in the Philippines continued. Elements of the Philippine Army continued their activity and were able to free all but twelve of the fifty provinces. Other groups such as the Hukbalahap were also involved. While in exile, President Quezon continued to represent the Philippines until his death in 1944. Allied forces under MacArthur made their return in October 1944, beginning with the landings at Leyte.
Philippines
The Sultan of Oman declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939. Omanese forces fought under British command in the Middle East theatre.
Oman
Panama was under continued American control throughout the war; the Panama Canal provided the U.S. military with the ability to move troops and materiel rapidly between the Pacific and European theaters.
Panama
Paraguay's authoritarian government under Higinio Morínigo was sympathetic to the Axis powers early in the war; the country's large German community in particular were supporters of Nazism. Serious thought was given to joining the war on Germany's side, however Franklin Roosevelt managed to avoid this happening with aid and military hardware in 1942. Despite this, Paraguay did not declare war on Germany until February 2, 1945, when it was clear the Allies were going to win.
Paraguay
Peru remained neutral until 1941, but when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, President Manuel Prado Ugarteche became the first South American leader to declare war on the Axis powers. Because of its ability to produce aviation fuel and proximity to the Panama Canal, the oil refinery and port city of Talara, in northwest Peru, became a very major American air base. The Peruvian Navy patrolled the canal.
Peru
See also: Military history of the Philippines during World War II
In 1941, the Philippine Commonwealth was a semi-independent commonwealth of the United States. The Philippine Army was commanded by the U.S. General Douglas MacArthur, and the Philippines was one of the first countries invaded by Japan. Filipino forces and the U.S. Army maintained a stubborn resistance. MacArthur withdrew his headquarters to Australia, where he made his famous statement "I came out of Bataan and I shall return". Allied forces in the Philippines officially surrendered at Corregidor, on May 8, 1942. Despite the surrender, resistance in the Philippines continued. Elements of the Philippine Army continued their activity and were able to free all but twelve of the fifty provinces. Other groups such as the Hukbalahap were also involved. While in exile, President Quezon continued to represent the Philippines until his death in 1944. Allied forces under MacArthur made their return in October 1944, beginning with the landings at Leyte.
Philippines
Main article: Polish contribution to World War II Poland
For the duration of World War II, Portugal was under the control of the dictator António de Oliveira Salazar, who led a government to the Franco regime in neighbouring Spain. Early in September 1939, Portugal proclaimed its neutrality because its sympathies were clearly on the side of the Allies. This action was welcomed by Great Britain and reaffirmed historic Anglo-Portuguese treaties with England dating from 1373 (Anglo-Portuguese Alliance) and 1386 (Treaty of Windsor). Germany's invasion of France brought the Nazis to the Pyrenees, which allowed Hilter to bring unanticipated pressures on Portugal and Spain. Following the Nazi invasion of Russia which cut-off their supply of wolfram (tungsten) from Asia, Germany initiated tactics to extract wolfram from Portugal. Initially Germany artificially ran up prices in an attempt to get the people to by-pass the Portuguese government and sell directly to German agents. Salazar attempted to limit this, and in October 1941, Germany sank a Portuguese merchant ship, the first neutral ship to be sunk in World War II. Germany torpedoed a second Portuguese ship in December.
Despite efforts to resist, and because of the German threat to Portuguese merchant trade, in January 1942 Salazar signed an agreement to sell wolfram to Germany. In June 1943, Britain invoked the long standing Anglo-Portuguese Alliance requesting the use of the Azores to establish a naval base. Salazar complied at once. The Allies then promised all possible aid in the event of a German attack against Portugal. Additionally, the United States and Great Britain guaranteed the integrity of Portugal's territorial possessions. In 1944, Portugal declared a total embargo of wolfram to Germany. Although the German Ambassador in Lisbon protested the Azores agreement, Germany never retaliated against Portugal.
Even while under intense German pressure and the presence of Nazi spies in Portugal, Lisbon became a safe haven to Jews from all over Europe. At the outbreak of World War II, Jewish refugees from Central Europe were granted resident status. After the German invasion of France, Portugal adopted a liberal visa policy allowing thousands of Jewish refugees to enter the country. As the war progressed, Portugal gave entry visas to those coming via rescue operations, on the condition that Portugal would only be used as a transit point. Portugal also joined other neutral countries in the efforts made to save Hungarian Jewry. More than 100,000 Jews and refugees were able to flee Nazi Germany into freedom via Lisbon. By the early 1940s, there were hundreds of thousands of Jews arriving in Lisbon and leaving weeks later, to the United States. Of those, only a minority decided to stay in Portugal. All of the Jews and Jewish refugees living in Portugal survived the war.
Portugal
Although the Japanese military invaded and occupied the neighbouring British colony of Hong Kong in 1941, they initially avoided direct interference in the affairs of Macau. Although it remained neutral territory — in much the same fashion as Portugal — Portuguese authorities lacked the ability to prevent Japanese activities in and around Macau. In 1943, Japan ordered the government of Macau to accept Japanese advisors. The limited Portuguese military forces at Macau were also disarmed, although it was never occupied.
Macau
For the duration of World War II, Portugal was under the control of the dictator António de Oliveira Salazar, who led a government to the Franco regime in neighbouring Spain. Early in September 1939, Portugal proclaimed its neutrality because its sympathies were clearly on the side of the Allies. This action was welcomed by Great Britain and reaffirmed historic Anglo-Portuguese treaties with England dating from 1373 (Anglo-Portuguese Alliance) and 1386 (Treaty of Windsor). Germany's invasion of France brought the Nazis to the Pyrenees, which allowed Hilter to bring unanticipated pressures on Portugal and Spain. Following the Nazi invasion of Russia which cut-off their supply of wolfram (tungsten) from Asia, Germany initiated tactics to extract wolfram from Portugal. Initially Germany artificially ran up prices in an attempt to get the people to by-pass the Portuguese government and sell directly to German agents. Salazar attempted to limit this, and in October 1941, Germany sank a Portuguese merchant ship, the first neutral ship to be sunk in World War II. Germany torpedoed a second Portuguese ship in December.
Despite efforts to resist, and because of the German threat to Portuguese merchant trade, in January 1942 Salazar signed an agreement to sell wolfram to Germany. In June 1943, Britain invoked the long standing Anglo-Portuguese Alliance requesting the use of the Azores to establish a naval base. Salazar complied at once. The Allies then promised all possible aid in the event of a German attack against Portugal. Additionally, the United States and Great Britain guaranteed the integrity of Portugal's territorial possessions. In 1944, Portugal declared a total embargo of wolfram to Germany. Although the German Ambassador in Lisbon protested the Azores agreement, Germany never retaliated against Portugal.
Even while under intense German pressure and the presence of Nazi spies in Portugal, Lisbon became a safe haven to Jews from all over Europe. At the outbreak of World War II, Jewish refugees from Central Europe were granted resident status. After the German invasion of France, Portugal adopted a liberal visa policy allowing thousands of Jewish refugees to enter the country. As the war progressed, Portugal gave entry visas to those coming via rescue operations, on the condition that Portugal would only be used as a transit point. Portugal also joined other neutral countries in the efforts made to save Hungarian Jewry. More than 100,000 Jews and refugees were able to flee Nazi Germany into freedom via Lisbon. By the early 1940s, there were hundreds of thousands of Jews arriving in Lisbon and leaving weeks later, to the United States. Of those, only a minority decided to stay in Portugal. All of the Jews and Jewish refugees living in Portugal survived the war.
Portugal
Although the Japanese military invaded and occupied the neighbouring British colony of Hong Kong in 1941, they initially avoided direct interference in the affairs of Macau. Although it remained neutral territory — in much the same fashion as Portugal — Portuguese authorities lacked the ability to prevent Japanese activities in and around Macau. In 1943, Japan ordered the government of Macau to accept Japanese advisors. The limited Portuguese military forces at Macau were also disarmed, although it was never occupied.
Macau
Main article: Battle of Timor (1942-43) Portuguese Timor
Main article: Romania during World War II Romania
Ever since the times of Garibaldi, San Marino has maintained strong ties with the Italian state. San Marino joined Italy in declaring war on Great Britain in 1940. Following the Italian surrender, San Marino immediately declared its neutrality. On September 21, 1944, San Marino declared war on Germany, which eventually occupied the nation while retreating northward. Following the war, San Marino provided for nearly 100,000 refugees.
San Marino
Saudi Arabia's contribution to the war effort was mainly in the form of resources. Although officially neutral, the Saudis did provide the Allies with large supplies of oil. King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud, despite resenting the British and French colonial presences in the Middle East, was a personal friend of Franklin D. Roosevelt (in fact the President gave King Abdul Aziz a wheelchair as a present during a 1945 visit to the kingdom). As a result, Saudi Arabia remained on favourable terms with the Allies.
Saudi Arabia
Singapore was a crown colony under British rule and is in a strategic location for shipping routes connecting Asia to Europe. For these reasons, Japan invaded Singapore in the Battle of Singapore from February 7, 1942 to February 14, 1942. The city was renamed Syonan and kept under Japanese occupation until the end of the war in September 1945.
Singapore
Ever since the times of Garibaldi, San Marino has maintained strong ties with the Italian state. San Marino joined Italy in declaring war on Great Britain in 1940. Following the Italian surrender, San Marino immediately declared its neutrality. On September 21, 1944, San Marino declared war on Germany, which eventually occupied the nation while retreating northward. Following the war, San Marino provided for nearly 100,000 refugees.
San Marino
Saudi Arabia's contribution to the war effort was mainly in the form of resources. Although officially neutral, the Saudis did provide the Allies with large supplies of oil. King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud, despite resenting the British and French colonial presences in the Middle East, was a personal friend of Franklin D. Roosevelt (in fact the President gave King Abdul Aziz a wheelchair as a present during a 1945 visit to the kingdom). As a result, Saudi Arabia remained on favourable terms with the Allies.
Saudi Arabia
Singapore was a crown colony under British rule and is in a strategic location for shipping routes connecting Asia to Europe. For these reasons, Japan invaded Singapore in the Battle of Singapore from February 7, 1942 to February 14, 1942. The city was renamed Syonan and kept under Japanese occupation until the end of the war in September 1945.
Singapore
Main article: Military history of South Africa during World War II South Africa
Southern Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe) was a British colony. As such, it was covered by the British declaration of war. Rhodesian units served in East Africa, Europe, North Africa and notably Burma. Southern Rhodesian troops were not allowed to serve as a composite unit (unlike their Australian, Canadian or South African counterparts) because they constituted a significant part of the settler population. A significant number of Southern Rhodesian troops, especially in the Rhodesian African Riffles, were not of white origin (mainly Ndebele and mixed race). Their service has never been recognised by the ZANU (PF) government in Harare.
Future Prime Minister, like most of his white contemporaries, Ian Smith, served under British command, as a fighter pilot during the Battle of Britain.
Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe) was a British colony. As such, it was covered by the British declaration of war. Rhodesian units served in East Africa, Europe, North Africa and notably Burma. Southern Rhodesian troops were not allowed to serve as a composite unit (unlike their Australian, Canadian or South African counterparts) because they constituted a significant part of the settler population. A significant number of Southern Rhodesian troops, especially in the Rhodesian African Riffles, were not of white origin (mainly Ndebele and mixed race). Their service has never been recognised by the ZANU (PF) government in Harare.
Future Prime Minister, like most of his white contemporaries, Ian Smith, served under British command, as a fighter pilot during the Battle of Britain.
Southern Rhodesia
Main article: Military history of the Soviet Union during World War II Soviet Union
The Franco government of Spain had risen to power as a result to a significant degree of Italian and German intervention and support. Spain, which was suffering the aftermath of the recently-finished Spanish Civil War, did not have the resources to join the war on its own, and Franco and Hitler did not achieve an agreement about the terms of the Spanish participation. Spain however did send volunteers to fight alongside Germans against the Soviet Union in the form of the División Azul. However, Spain was considered a non-belligerent country. As the Allies emerged as possible victors, the regime became more neutral, finally declaring its neutrality in July 1943.
Spain
Sweden maintained neutrality throughout the war, though some Swedish volunteers participated in the Winter War as well as in the Continuation War against the Soviet Union. Sweden also supplied many materials for Germany, in particular high-quality iron ore which enabled Germany to build up its army and bearings which were crucial for fighter planes, almost as tribute to avoid invasion. The Allies put a lot of effort into the Norwegian theatre simply to force Sweden into joining the war.
Sweden
The Franco government of Spain had risen to power as a result to a significant degree of Italian and German intervention and support. Spain, which was suffering the aftermath of the recently-finished Spanish Civil War, did not have the resources to join the war on its own, and Franco and Hitler did not achieve an agreement about the terms of the Spanish participation. Spain however did send volunteers to fight alongside Germans against the Soviet Union in the form of the División Azul. However, Spain was considered a non-belligerent country. As the Allies emerged as possible victors, the regime became more neutral, finally declaring its neutrality in July 1943.
Spain
Sweden maintained neutrality throughout the war, though some Swedish volunteers participated in the Winter War as well as in the Continuation War against the Soviet Union. Sweden also supplied many materials for Germany, in particular high-quality iron ore which enabled Germany to build up its army and bearings which were crucial for fighter planes, almost as tribute to avoid invasion. The Allies put a lot of effort into the Norwegian theatre simply to force Sweden into joining the war.
Sweden
Main article: Switzerland during the World Wars Switzerland
Syria was under French control throughout the war. From the French surrender in 1940, this was the 'Vichy' government that was sympathetic to the Nazi regime. Churchill had fears about the use of Syria to threaten Britain's Iraqi oil supplies. These appeared to be substantiated when Luftwaffe supply flights to the new pro-German Iraqi regime (under Rashid Ali) refuelled in Damascus.
In June 1941, British and Free French forces invaded Syria, and after giving effective opposition, the Vichy forces surrendered in July 1941. British occupation lasted until the end of the war.
The province of Iskanderoun was given to Turkey to keep them neutral in the war.
Syria
Tannu Tuva was under effective Soviet control for the duration of the war. It entered the conflict on June 25, 1941, three days after the Soviet Union. Tannu Tuva was integrated directly into the Soviet Union on October 11, 1944, before the war concluded.
Tannu Tuva
Thailand was an ally of Japan during the war. The country was ruled by Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram, a military dictator with nationalist leanings. Thailand remained uninvolved when war broke out in Europe but took the opportunity of France's defeat to settle historical claims to parts of French Indochina. The conflict between Thailand and the Vichy regime is known as the French-Thai War. In 1941, the Japanese invaded the country; Phibun, while reluctant, believed that Japan's superior military power gave Thailand no choice but to order an armistice and allow the Japanese to pass through. The Premier became more enthusiastic about co-operation with Japan when the Japanese performed well in Malaya, and on December 21, a formal alliance was concluded. At noon on January 25, 1942, Thailand declared war on the United States and Great Britain. Some Thais supported the alliance, arguing that it was in the national interest, or arguing that it was better sense to ally oneself with a victorious power. Others formed the Free Thai Movement to resist. Eventually, when the war turned against the Japanese, Phibun was forced to resign, and a Free Thai-controlled government was formed. On August 16, 1945, Thailand rescinded its declarations of war.
Thailand
The Queen of Tonga put all the country's resources at the disposal of Britain and was a loyal supporter of the Allied cause throughout the war.
Tonga
Transjordan was nominally a British protectorate, and the Transjordanian forces were under British command during the war.
Transjordan
Throughout most of the war, Turkey proclaimed neutrality while providing Germany with raw materials such as its sole supply of chromite. It was not until February 1945 that Turkey declared war on Germany in order to secure a seat in the United Nations. Turkey did not participate in any military operations.
Turkey
Syria was under French control throughout the war. From the French surrender in 1940, this was the 'Vichy' government that was sympathetic to the Nazi regime. Churchill had fears about the use of Syria to threaten Britain's Iraqi oil supplies. These appeared to be substantiated when Luftwaffe supply flights to the new pro-German Iraqi regime (under Rashid Ali) refuelled in Damascus.
In June 1941, British and Free French forces invaded Syria, and after giving effective opposition, the Vichy forces surrendered in July 1941. British occupation lasted until the end of the war.
The province of Iskanderoun was given to Turkey to keep them neutral in the war.
Syria
Tannu Tuva was under effective Soviet control for the duration of the war. It entered the conflict on June 25, 1941, three days after the Soviet Union. Tannu Tuva was integrated directly into the Soviet Union on October 11, 1944, before the war concluded.
Tannu Tuva
Thailand was an ally of Japan during the war. The country was ruled by Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram, a military dictator with nationalist leanings. Thailand remained uninvolved when war broke out in Europe but took the opportunity of France's defeat to settle historical claims to parts of French Indochina. The conflict between Thailand and the Vichy regime is known as the French-Thai War. In 1941, the Japanese invaded the country; Phibun, while reluctant, believed that Japan's superior military power gave Thailand no choice but to order an armistice and allow the Japanese to pass through. The Premier became more enthusiastic about co-operation with Japan when the Japanese performed well in Malaya, and on December 21, a formal alliance was concluded. At noon on January 25, 1942, Thailand declared war on the United States and Great Britain. Some Thais supported the alliance, arguing that it was in the national interest, or arguing that it was better sense to ally oneself with a victorious power. Others formed the Free Thai Movement to resist. Eventually, when the war turned against the Japanese, Phibun was forced to resign, and a Free Thai-controlled government was formed. On August 16, 1945, Thailand rescinded its declarations of war.
Thailand
The Queen of Tonga put all the country's resources at the disposal of Britain and was a loyal supporter of the Allied cause throughout the war.
Tonga
Transjordan was nominally a British protectorate, and the Transjordanian forces were under British command during the war.
Transjordan
Throughout most of the war, Turkey proclaimed neutrality while providing Germany with raw materials such as its sole supply of chromite. It was not until February 1945 that Turkey declared war on Germany in order to secure a seat in the United Nations. Turkey did not participate in any military operations.
Turkey
Main article: British military history of World War II United Kingdom
Main article: Occupation of the Channel Islands Channel Islands
See also: Military history of the United States during World War II
The United States of America was neutral early in the war, although it steadily grew ties with the Allies and began providing increased levels of assistance to them. The United States joined the Allies in December 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, when war on Japan was declared by Congress on December 8. Germany and Italy declared war on the United States 3 days later. The United States subscribed to the Allied plan of making German defeat the priority, where it operated in coordination with the United Kingdom in most major operations. However, it also maintained a strong effort against Japan, being the primary Allied power in the Pacific Theatre. The U.S. played an important role in providing valuable industrial production to support the Allied war effort. After the war, the United States retained military commitments to European security while providing economic investment to rebuild nations suffering devastation during the war. Politically, the U.S. became the leader of the western Allies in forming NATO, and hosts the United Nations in which it gained one of the permanent seats on the Security Council.
United States of America
Uruguay was neutral for most of World War II, although later joined the Allies. It declared its neutrality on September 4, 1939, although President Alfredo Baldomir was poorly disposed towards the Axis powers. Uruguay's neutrality included a 500-kilometre (300-mi) exclusion zone extending from its coast, established as part of the Declaration of Panama. Neither side of the conflict acknowledged the exclusion zones established by the declaration, and in December, British warships and the German ship Admiral Graf Spee fought a battle not far off Uruguay's coast. This prompted a joint protest from several Latin American nations to both sides. (Admiral Graf Spee took refuge in Uruguay's capital, Montevideo, claiming sanctuary in a neutral port, but was later ordered out). Later, in early 1942, President Baldomir broke off diplomatic relations with the Axis Powers. On February 15, 1945, near the end of the war, Uruguay dropped its policy of neutrality and joined the Allies.
Uruguay
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Venezuela severed diplomatic relations with Italy, Germany and Japan, and after implementing (with help from the United States) defenses on the oil wells (there was information that Germany had plans to invade the American continent from Venezuela and seize its oil production) produced vast oil resources for the Allies. It maintained a relative neutrality until the last years of war, when it finally declared war on Germany and the rest of the Axis countries.
Yemen
See also Yugoslavia during the Second World War
At 05:15 on April 6, 1941, German, Italian, Hungarian, and Bulgarian forces attacked Yugoslavia. The Luftwaffe bombed Belgrade and other major Yugoslav cities. On April 17, representatives of Yugoslavia's various regions signed an armistice with Germany at Belgrade, ending eleven days of resistance against the invading German Wehrmacht. More than three hundred thousand Yugoslav officers and soldiers were taken prisoners.
The Axis Powers occupied Yugoslavia and created several puppet states. German troops occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as parts of Serbia and Slovenia. Other parts of Yugoslavia were occupied by Bulgaria, Hungary, and Italy. The Independent State of Croatia was ruled by Ante Pavelić and his Catholic fascist militia known as the Ustaše. Croatia was a German and Italian puppet state. The Serbian régime of General Milan Nedić and popularly known as Nedić's Serbia was a German puppet state. The Independent State of Montenegro was founded by Sekule Drljević and was an Italian puppet state from 1941 to 1943 and a German puppet state from 1943 to 1944.
Yugoslavs opposing the Nazis organized resistance movements. Those inclined towards supporting the old Kingdom of Yugoslavia joined the Chetniks, a mostly Serb-composed nationalistic royalist guerilla army led by Colonel Draža Mihajlović that fought Germans till 1942 when they allied with them. Those inclined towards supporting the Communist Party (and against the King) joined the Yugoslav National Liberation Army (NLA), led by Josip Broz Tito, a Croat-Slovenian member of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia.
The NLA initiated a guerrilla campaign which was developed into the largest resistance army in occupied Western and Central Europe. The Chetniks initially made notable incursions and were supported by the exiled royal government as well as the Allies, but were soon restrained from taking wider actions due to German reprisals against the Serb civilian population. For every killed soldier, the Germans executed 100 civilians, and for each wounded, they killed 50. Following Chetniks' termination of war activities against the Germans, reported atrocities against non-Serb population and frequent collaboration with Italians and (less frequently) Germans against the NLA, the Allies eventually switched to support the NLA.
However, NLA carried on its guerrilla warfare. This led to great civilian loss of life in most regions of Yugoslavia. The demographic loss is estimated at 1,027,000 individuals by Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović, an estimate accepted by the UN, while the official Yugoslav authorities claimed 1,700,000 casualties. Very high losses were among Serbs of Bosnia and Croatia, and members of non-aryan (according to the German racist theory: Jews, Gypsies) minorities, high also among all other non-collaborating population.
During the war, the communist-led partisans were de facto rulers on the liberated territories, and the NLA organized people's committees to act as civilian government. In autumn of 1941, the partisans established the Republic of Užice in the liberated territory of western Serbia. In November 1941, the German troops occupied this territory again, while the majority of partisan forces escaped towards Bosnia.
On November 25, 1942, the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia was convened in Bihać. The council reconvened on November 29, 1943 in Jajce and established the basis for post-war organisation of the country, establishing a federation (this date was celebrated as Republic Day after the war).
The NLA was able to expel the Axis from Serbia in 1944 and the rest of Yugoslavia in 1945. The Red Army aided in liberating Belgrade as well as some other territories, but withdrew after the war was over. In May 1945, NLA met with Allied forces outside former Yugoslav borders, after taking over also Trieste and parts of Austrian southern provinces Styria and Carinthia. This was the territory populated predominantly by Slovenians (and Croats in Istria). However, the NLA withdrew from Trieste in June.
Westerner attempts to reunite the partisans, who denied supremacy of the old government of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and the emigration loyal to the king, led to the Tito-Šubašić Agreement in June 1944, however Tito was seen as a national hero by the citizens and so he gained the power in post-war independent communist state, starting as a prime minister.
See also: Military history of the United States during World War II
The United States of America was neutral early in the war, although it steadily grew ties with the Allies and began providing increased levels of assistance to them. The United States joined the Allies in December 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, when war on Japan was declared by Congress on December 8. Germany and Italy declared war on the United States 3 days later. The United States subscribed to the Allied plan of making German defeat the priority, where it operated in coordination with the United Kingdom in most major operations. However, it also maintained a strong effort against Japan, being the primary Allied power in the Pacific Theatre. The U.S. played an important role in providing valuable industrial production to support the Allied war effort. After the war, the United States retained military commitments to European security while providing economic investment to rebuild nations suffering devastation during the war. Politically, the U.S. became the leader of the western Allies in forming NATO, and hosts the United Nations in which it gained one of the permanent seats on the Security Council.
United States of America
Uruguay was neutral for most of World War II, although later joined the Allies. It declared its neutrality on September 4, 1939, although President Alfredo Baldomir was poorly disposed towards the Axis powers. Uruguay's neutrality included a 500-kilometre (300-mi) exclusion zone extending from its coast, established as part of the Declaration of Panama. Neither side of the conflict acknowledged the exclusion zones established by the declaration, and in December, British warships and the German ship Admiral Graf Spee fought a battle not far off Uruguay's coast. This prompted a joint protest from several Latin American nations to both sides. (Admiral Graf Spee took refuge in Uruguay's capital, Montevideo, claiming sanctuary in a neutral port, but was later ordered out). Later, in early 1942, President Baldomir broke off diplomatic relations with the Axis Powers. On February 15, 1945, near the end of the war, Uruguay dropped its policy of neutrality and joined the Allies.
Uruguay
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Venezuela severed diplomatic relations with Italy, Germany and Japan, and after implementing (with help from the United States) defenses on the oil wells (there was information that Germany had plans to invade the American continent from Venezuela and seize its oil production) produced vast oil resources for the Allies. It maintained a relative neutrality until the last years of war, when it finally declared war on Germany and the rest of the Axis countries.
Yemen
See also Yugoslavia during the Second World War
At 05:15 on April 6, 1941, German, Italian, Hungarian, and Bulgarian forces attacked Yugoslavia. The Luftwaffe bombed Belgrade and other major Yugoslav cities. On April 17, representatives of Yugoslavia's various regions signed an armistice with Germany at Belgrade, ending eleven days of resistance against the invading German Wehrmacht. More than three hundred thousand Yugoslav officers and soldiers were taken prisoners.
The Axis Powers occupied Yugoslavia and created several puppet states. German troops occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as parts of Serbia and Slovenia. Other parts of Yugoslavia were occupied by Bulgaria, Hungary, and Italy. The Independent State of Croatia was ruled by Ante Pavelić and his Catholic fascist militia known as the Ustaše. Croatia was a German and Italian puppet state. The Serbian régime of General Milan Nedić and popularly known as Nedić's Serbia was a German puppet state. The Independent State of Montenegro was founded by Sekule Drljević and was an Italian puppet state from 1941 to 1943 and a German puppet state from 1943 to 1944.
Yugoslavs opposing the Nazis organized resistance movements. Those inclined towards supporting the old Kingdom of Yugoslavia joined the Chetniks, a mostly Serb-composed nationalistic royalist guerilla army led by Colonel Draža Mihajlović that fought Germans till 1942 when they allied with them. Those inclined towards supporting the Communist Party (and against the King) joined the Yugoslav National Liberation Army (NLA), led by Josip Broz Tito, a Croat-Slovenian member of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia.
The NLA initiated a guerrilla campaign which was developed into the largest resistance army in occupied Western and Central Europe. The Chetniks initially made notable incursions and were supported by the exiled royal government as well as the Allies, but were soon restrained from taking wider actions due to German reprisals against the Serb civilian population. For every killed soldier, the Germans executed 100 civilians, and for each wounded, they killed 50. Following Chetniks' termination of war activities against the Germans, reported atrocities against non-Serb population and frequent collaboration with Italians and (less frequently) Germans against the NLA, the Allies eventually switched to support the NLA.
However, NLA carried on its guerrilla warfare. This led to great civilian loss of life in most regions of Yugoslavia. The demographic loss is estimated at 1,027,000 individuals by Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović, an estimate accepted by the UN, while the official Yugoslav authorities claimed 1,700,000 casualties. Very high losses were among Serbs of Bosnia and Croatia, and members of non-aryan (according to the German racist theory: Jews, Gypsies) minorities, high also among all other non-collaborating population.
During the war, the communist-led partisans were de facto rulers on the liberated territories, and the NLA organized people's committees to act as civilian government. In autumn of 1941, the partisans established the Republic of Užice in the liberated territory of western Serbia. In November 1941, the German troops occupied this territory again, while the majority of partisan forces escaped towards Bosnia.
On November 25, 1942, the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia was convened in Bihać. The council reconvened on November 29, 1943 in Jajce and established the basis for post-war organisation of the country, establishing a federation (this date was celebrated as Republic Day after the war).
The NLA was able to expel the Axis from Serbia in 1944 and the rest of Yugoslavia in 1945. The Red Army aided in liberating Belgrade as well as some other territories, but withdrew after the war was over. In May 1945, NLA met with Allied forces outside former Yugoslav borders, after taking over also Trieste and parts of Austrian southern provinces Styria and Carinthia. This was the territory populated predominantly by Slovenians (and Croats in Istria). However, the NLA withdrew from Trieste in June.
Westerner attempts to reunite the partisans, who denied supremacy of the old government of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and the emigration loyal to the king, led to the Tito-Šubašić Agreement in June 1944, however Tito was seen as a national hero by the citizens and so he gained the power in post-war independent communist state, starting as a prime minister.
Subscribe to:
Post Comments (Atom)
Blog Archive
-
▼
2007
(127)
-
▼
December
(29)
- Diversified Communications Tower is a guyed ma...
- Quebec Senior Football League operated in the 19...
- Coordinates: 54°34′26″N 1°14′00″W / 54.574, -1...
- jello can refer to different things: Jell-O A ...
- Edgar Degas (19 July 1834 – 27 September 1917), ...
- Life Works Suite for 4 trombones - 1953 C...
- The Florida Board of Governors was created in ...
- Apache Forrest is a web-publishing framework b...
- Kāi Mamoe, or Ngāti Mamoe, is an historic Māor...
- Stone of Destiny may refer to: Stone of Scone,...
- For the ancient Italic peoples, see Sabellians. ...
- Early Life Her career is said to have begun on...
- The Roman departure from Britain was completed...
- see text Coenocorypha is a genus of tiny birds...
- History and usage See also: Turkish dotted and...
- The Hong Kong cricket team is the cricket team...
- Abraham Rees (1743–1825), compiler of Rees's C...
- Bank of Scotland International is the internat...
- Participants in World War II involves all nation...
- For the scientific journal of the same name see ...
- The Siege of Leningrad (Russian: блокада Ленингр...
- Diyarbakır is a province in eastern Turkey. The ...
- New York's Village Halloween Parade is an annual...
- Dame Rosalyn Higgins DBE United Kingdom The Int...
- Altria Group, Inc. (NYSE: MO) (previously name...
- Controversy 1998 - 1999 Pogoń Siedlce 19...
- "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" is a pop song...
- Georg Johannesen (February 22, 1931 – December...
- Girls Aloud are a Smash Hits Poll Winners, TMF A...
-
▼
December
(29)
No comments:
Post a Comment