Gabriel Cramer (July 31, 1704 - January 4, 1752) was a Swiss mathematician, born in Geneva. He showed promise in mathematics from an early age. At 18 he received his doctorate and at 20 he was co-chair of mathematics. In 1728 he proposed a solution to the St. Petersburg Paradox that came very close to the concept of expected utility theory given ten years later by Daniel Bernoulli. The work by which he is best known for came in his forties. This work is his treatise on algebraic curves "Introduction à l'analyse des lignes courbes algébraique" published in 1750; it contains the earliest demonstration that a curve of the n-th degree is determined by
n(n + 3)/2 points
on it, in general position. He edited the works of the two elder Bernoullis; and wrote on the physical cause of the spheroidal shape of the planets and the motion of their apses (1730), and on Newton's treatment of cubic curves (1746). He was professor at Geneva, and died at Bagnols-sur-Cèze.
Adapted from A Short Account of the History of Mathematics by W. W. Rouse Ball (4th Edition, 1908).
He was the son of physician Jean Cramer and Anne Mallet Cramer.

See also

Cramer's rule
Cramer's paradox

Flag of SEATO
SEATO founding members are highlighted in purple
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty or the Manila Pact, was an international organization for collective defense established on September 8, 1954. It was primarily created to block further Communist gains in Southeast Asia. The organization's headquarters was located in Bangkok, Thailand. SEATO was dissolved on June 30, 1977.

History

Klaus Bollinger: NATO, CENTO, SEATO, OAS : imperialistische Paktsysteme, Berlin 1964 (German)
Kai Dreisbach : USA und ASEAN. Amerikanische Aussenpolitik und regionale Kooperation in Südostasien vom Vietnamkrieg bis zur Asienkrise, Trier 2004, ISBN 3-88476-656-2 (German)
Nikolaj Semenovich Merzljakov.: SEATO, Moskau 1958 (German)

For other uses, see Kremlin (disambiguation). Seat of Grand Dukes
By 1475, the principalities of medieval Russia were united under Grand Prince Ivan III, who assumed the title of the Grand Prince of All Rus, envisioning Moscow as the only legitimate successor to Rome and Constantinople. In order to illustrate his imperial ambitions, Ivan organised the reconstruction of the Kremlin, inviting a number of skilled architects from Renaissance Italy, like Pietro Antonio Solari and Marco Ruffo. It was during his reign that three extant cathedrals of the Kremlin, the Deposition Church, and the Palace of Facets were constructed. The highest building of the city and Muscovite Russia was the Ivan the Great Bell Tower, built in 1505-08 and augmented to its present height in 1600.
After construction of the new Kremlin walls and churches was over in 1516, the monarch decreed that no structures should be built in the immediate vicinity of the citadel. Furthermore, the Kremlin was separated from the walled merchant town (Kitai-gorod) by a 30-metre-wide moat, over which the Intercession Cathedral on the Moat was constructed during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. The same tsar also renovated some of his grandfather's palaces, added a new palace and cathedral for his sons, and endowed the Trinity metochion inside the Kremlin. The metochion was administrated by the Trinity Monastery and boasted the graceful tower church of St. Sergius, which was described by foreigners as one of the finest in the country.
During the Time of Troubles, the Kremlin was held by the Polish-Lithuanian forces for two years, between 21 September 1610 and 26 October 1612. The Kremlin's liberation by the volunteer army of Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky paved the way for the election of Mikhail Romanov as the new tsar. During his reign and that of his son Alexis, the eleven-domed Upper Saviour Cathedral, Armorial Gate, Terem Palace, Amusement Palace and the palace of Patriarch Nikon were built. Following the death of Alexis, the Kremlin witnessed the Moscow Uprising of 1682, from which tsar Peter barely escaped alive. This emotional trauma made him dislike the Kremlin. Three decades later, Peter abandoned the residence of his forefathers for his new capital, Saint Petersburg.

Residence of Tsars
Although still used for coronation ceremonies, the Kremlin was abandoned and neglected until 1773, when Catherine the Great engaged Vasily Bazhenov to build her new residence there. Bazhenov produced a bombastic Neoclassical design on a heroic scale, which involved the demolition of several churches and palaces, as well as a portion of the Kremlin wall. After the preparations were over, construction halted due to lack of funds. Several years later, Matvei Kazakov restored the dismantled sections of the wall, rebuilt the ancient Saviour Cathedral and some structures of the Chudov Monastery, and constructed the spacious and luxurious residence of the Senate, since adapted for use as the principal workplace of the President of Russia.
During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, the French forces occupied the Kremlin from 2 September to 11 October. When Napoleon fled Moscow, he ordered the whole Kremlin to be blown up. The Kremlin Arsenal, several portions of the Kremlin Wall and several wall towers were destroyed by explosions and fires damaged the Faceted Chamber and churches. Explosions continued for three days, from 21 to 23 October. Fortunately, the rain damaged the fuses, and the damage was less severe than intended. Restoration works were held in 1816-19, supervised by Osip Bove. During the remainder of Alexander I's reign, several ancient structures were overhauled in a fanciful neo-Gothic style, but many more were simply swept away as "disused" or "dilapidated" (including all the buildings of the Trinity metochion).
On visiting Moscow during his coronation, Nicholas I of Russia was not satisfied with the Grand, or Winter, Palace, which had been erected to Rastrelli's design in the 1750s. The elaborate Baroque structure was demolished, as of St. John the Precursor, built by Aloisio the New in 1508 in place of the very first church ever constructed in Moscow. The architect Konstantin Thon was commissioned to replace them with the Grand Kremlin Palace, which was to rival the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg by its dimensions and the opulence of its interiors. The palace was constructed in 1839-49, followed by the new building of the Kremlin Armoury in 1851.
After that, there was virtually no new construction in the Kremlin until the Russian Revolution of 1917. The only new structures were the Monument to Alexander II and a stone cross marking the spot where Grand Duke Sergey Aleksandrovich of Russia was assassinated by Ivan Kalyayev in 1905. These monuments were destroyed by the Bolsheviks in 1918.

Imperial period
The Soviet government fled from Petrograd to Moscow on 12 March 1918. Lenin selected the Kremlin Senate as his residence; his room is still preserved as a museum. Stalin also had his personal rooms in the Kremlin. He was eager to remove from his headquarters all the "relics of the tsarist regime". Golden eagles on the towers were replaced by shining Kremlin stars, while the wall near Lenin's Mausoleum was turned into the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.
The Chudov Monastery and Ascension Convent, with their magnificent 16th-century cathedrals, were dismantled to make room for the Communist military school and Palace of Congresses. The Little Nicholas Palace and the old Saviour Cathedral were pulled down as well. The residence of the Soviet government was closed to tourists until 1955. It was not until the Khrushchev Thaw that the Kremlin was reopened to foreign visitors. The Kremlin Museums were established in 1961 and the complex was among the first Soviet patrimonies inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1990.
Although the current director of the Kremlin Museums, Elena Gagarina (Yuri Gagarin's daughter) advocates a full-scale restoration of the destroyed cloisters, recent developments have been confined to expensive restoration of the original interiors of the Grand Kremlin Palace, which were altered during Stalin's rule. The Patriarch of Moscow has a suite of rooms in the Kremlin, but divine service in the Kremlin cathedrals is held irregularly, because they are still administrated as museums.

Buildings
The name Kremlin is often used as a metonymy to refer to the government of the Soviet Union (1922-1991) and its highest members (such as general secretaries, premiers, presidents, ministers, and commissars), in the same way the name Downing Street refers to the British government, or White House refers to the government of the United States. To some extent, it is still used in reference to the government of the Russian Federation. "Kremlinology" referred to the study of Soviet policies.

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Angola
The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Portuguese: Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola) is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal in the war of independence under the leadership of Holden Roberto. The FNLA became a political party in 1992.
Ahead of the first multiparty elections in 1992, FNLA was reorganized as a political party. FNLA received 2.4% of the votes and won five Members of Parliament.

President

• José Eduardo dos Santos
  Prime Minister
  
  
  
  • Fernando dos Santos
    Ministers
    National Assembly
    Political parties
    
    
    
    • MPLA - UNITA - PLD - FNLA
      Elections:
      
      
      
      • 2008 legislative
        2009 presidential
        Provinces
        Municipalities
        Civil war
        Foreign relations
        
        
        
        • Angola-US relations
          Ambassadors from Angola
          Ambassadors to Angola United States
          
          Luanda Trial

Icelandic Wikipedia is the Icelandic-language edition of Wikipedia. The Icelandic edition was started on December 5, 2003, and has nearly 17,000 articles as of July 18, 2007.

Constitutionality is the status of a law, a procedure, or an act's accordance with the laws or guidelines set forth in the applicable constitution. When one of these directly violates the constitution it is unconstitutional. All the rest are considered constitutional until declared otherwise.
An act (or statute) which is enacted as law either by the council of a city or county, by the legislature of a state or province, or by a national legislature, may be declared unconstitutional. When the proper court determines that the act in question conflicts with the constitution, it finds that law unconstitutional and declares it void in whole or in part. This is called judicial review. The portion of the law that is declared void is considered to be struck down, or the entire statute is considered to be struck from the statute books.
Depending on the type of legal system, a statute may be declared unconstitutional by any court or only by special Constitutional courts which have the authority to rule on the validity of a statute.
In some countries, especially those not having a formal written constitution, the legislature may create any law for any purpose and there is no provision for a law to be declared unconstitutional.
A constitutional violation is thus somewhat different from the breaking of a normal law, both in terms of seriousness and punishment. Declaring a law unconstitutional does not result in the punishment of those who passed it. In many U.S. states the supreme court or constitutional court is the final legal arbiter that renders an opinion on whether a law or an action of a government official is constitutional.
Some examples of unconstitutional actions can be:
Most constitutions define the powers of government. Thus, national constitutions typically apply only to government actions. This means that only governments can violate the nation's constitution, but there are exceptions.
The legal encyclopedia American Jurisprudence says the following in regard to constitutionality:
The general rule is that an unconstitutional statute, though having the form and the name of law, is in reality no law, but is wholly void and ineffective for any purpose since unconstitutionality dates from the time of its enactment and not merely from the date of the decision so branding it; an unconstitutional law, in legal contemplation, is as inoperative as if it had never been passed ... An unconstitutional law is void. (16 Am. Jur. 2d, Sec. 178)

A politician who abuses the powers of his constitutionally-established office.
A legislature that tries to pass a law that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper constitutional amendment process.
Any person acting on behalf of the government who tries to prevent an individual from exercising individual rights which the constitution protects (such as the right to vote or to practice religion). Unconstitutional laws in the United States
Much debate often surrounds controversial laws enacted by state legislatures and the United States Congress regarding the laws' constitutionality. There are different forms of constitutions;The United States Constitution is a "Rigid Constitution". Rigid constitutions cannot be modified in their express terms, except through such processes the Constitution itself ordains.

Mechanical duplicators
In 1986 the RISO Kagaku Corporation introduced the Digital duplicator. It uses the duplicator technology but improves on it. It improves upon the mimeo machine in that the operator does not have to create the stencil. The stencil, called a master is made by use of a scanner and thermal print head. Also the master is automatically removed as a new one is created and placed in a disposal box. This way the operator should not have to touch the used master material that is coated in ink.
There are also cost advantages over a copier the higher the volume. The main cost is in the master material. This ranges between .40–.80 cents per master depending on the manufacturer. When spread over 20 or more copies the cost per copy (2 to 4 cents) is close to photocopiers. But for every copy the costs decrease. At 1,000 prints the master cost per copy is only .0004–.0008 cents per copy.
Other manufacturers have adapted the technology including:

Riso Kagaku Corporation
Duplo
Gestetner
Ricoh